Changing the change resistant university.

Changing the change resistant university. THE IMPENDING im��pend?intr.v. im��pend��ed, im��pend��ing, im��pends1. To be about to occur: Her retirement is impending.2. CRISIS IN HIGHER EDUCATION The strategic role of the university in modern society was giventheoretical explanation by Talcott Parsons Noun 1. Talcott Parsons - United States sociologist (1902-1979)Parsons and Gerald M. Platt whoreferred to the university as the "keystone key��stone?n.1. Architecture The central wedge-shaped stone of an arch that locks its parts together. Also called headstone.2. The central supporting element of a whole. of the professionalarch" (1968, p. 1). The point Parsons and Platt were making is thatthe modern system of higher education is integral to the occupationalsystem in a way that qualitatively distinguishes it from the past.Higher education before the late 1800s was more a mark of status than anavenue of occupational mobility (Jenks and Reisman, 1968). The rise ofthe modern university coincided with the rise of the professions, suchas law, medicine, and engineering. Still, until the 1960s, thebachelor's degree was claimed by the few. The late 1950s and 1960smarked the emergence of what Daniel Bell For the minimal techno artist, see .Daniel Bell (born 10 May 1919 in New York) is a sociologist and a professor emeritus at Harvard University. He is also a director of Suntory Foundation and a scholar in residence of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. first called the"post-industrial society" and the dramatic rise of the collegeeducated population (Bell, 1973, p. 112). Now, well into the last decade of the twentieth century, it isclear that higher education is the prototypical institution ofpost-industrial society. Because higher education certifies individualsas "knowledge workers," (a term coined by Peter Drucker in1959) it has unprecedented status and importance (Drucker, 1994, p.62-64). With this status and importance comes new and alien demands.Colleges and universities are being scrutinized and evaluated by societyin new and sometimes threatening ways. These demands run the gamut See color gamut. gamut - The gamut of a monitor is the set of colours it can display. There are some colours which can't be made up of a mixture of red, green and blue phosphor emissions and so can't be displayed by any monitor. fromquestions about cost and operational efficiency to the acceptability ofthe product (e.g., the quality of students and the value of research). Since their emergence in modern form, universities have changedlittle in organization and structure, and mightily might��i��ly?adv.1. In a mighty manner; powerfully.2. To a great degree; greatly.Adv. 1. mightily - powerfully or vigorously; "he strove mightily to achieve a better position in life"2. resist reformefforts. It is ironic that an institution at the center of social changeand whose culture embraces political liberalism (normally associatedwith change) itself has been so change resistant (Evans, 1980). However,with unprecedented change occurring in the larger society it isunrealistic to expect that higher education will remain untouched. Forwhile the function of higher education may be indispensable topostindustrial post��in��dus��tri��al?adj.Of or relating to a period in the development of an economy or nation in which the relative importance of manufacturing lessens and that of services, information, and research grows.Adj. 1. society, the institutions of higher education as we knowthem are not. Many if not most university administrators, generally moresensitive than faculty to the increasing disjunction disjunction/dis��junc��tion/ (-junk��shun)1. the act or state of being disjoined.2. in genetics, the moving apart of bivalent chromosomes at the first anaphase of meiosis. between theuniversity and larger society, have become convinced of the need forchange. Effective administrative response to change must not onlyinclude an accurate assessment of what needs changing, it must alsoacknowledge the reactions of the key participants to change, addressingissues such as resistance, motivation, and accountability. In a recent article in Change magazine entitled, "Future work:Faculty time in the 21st Century," William Plater identifies whathe contends are the "most important forces pushing us inexorably in��ex��o��ra��ble?adj.Not capable of being persuaded by entreaty; relentless: an inexorable opponent; a feeling of inexorable doom.See Synonyms at inflexible. toward institutional change" (Plater, 1995, p. 24). The first ofPlater's forces is constituent-based education. This concept,influenced by the continuous improvement movement (TQM (Total Quality Management) An organizational undertaking to improve the quality of manufacturing and service. It focuses on obtaining continuous feedback for making improvements and refining existing processes over the long term. See ISO 9000. , CQI CQI Continuous Quality ImprovementCQI Chartered Quality Institute (UK)CQI Clinical Quality ImprovementCQI Channel Quality IndicatorCQI Constant Quality ImprovementCQI Canonical Query LanguageCQI Cost of Quality Improvement ) refers tothe notion of placing the needs and objectives of students (the"customers") before those of faculty. Potential impactsinclude: faculty curricular and research preferences become secondary tostudent goals; education becomes a product, with funding contingent on Adj. 1. contingent on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress"contingent upon, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent measurable outcomes; institutions become mission driven and focused. A second force refers to costs and accountability in highereducation. As higher education has become the gatekeeper In an H.323 IP telephony or video environment, a gatekeeper is a device that manages domains and provides call control. It is used to translate user names into IP addresses, to authenticate users and to manage network resources. for the higherlevels of the occupational system in post industrial society, theeconomic rewards of degree completion have increased dramatically.Society, therefore, has a tremendous stake in how efficiently highereducation is conducted. In the last decade the cost of higher educationhas risen dramatically at both public and private institutions. This hascreated great concern among parents about their ability to educate theirchildren. At the same time, the principal source of low costeducation--the state college or university--has faced a tremendousbudget squeeze. In state after state the share of the budget devoted tohigher education has declined while that of K-12 education, socialservices social servicesNoun, plwelfare services provided by local authorities or a state agency for people with particular social needssocial servicesnpl → servicios mpl sociales, and corrections has increased. Tuition at state institutionsof higher education has increased rapidly at the same time that capacityhas remained stagnant. The implications of these trends are masked bythe decline in the college age cohort. However, when the baby boom echoreaches higher education the implications will be painfully obvious toparents and legislators alike. Assuming no dramatic change in public preference (the willingnessto increase the individual tax burden, to tolerate more crime, or toreduce K-12 expenditures), there will be tremendous demand to increaseefficiency. This may take the form of support for innovative servicedelivery, including distance learning and the "virtualuniversity," partial or even complete privatization privatization:see nationalization. privatizationTransfer of government services or assets to the private sector. State-owned assets may be sold to private owners, or statutory restrictions on competition between privately and publicly owned to reduce costsand increase efficiency, and the demand for measures of efficiency andassessment of outcomes. As evidence of the deepening concern the publichas for resource management in higher education, Plater (1995) notesthat last year some 24 states conducted faculty workload studies, and 18established programs to assess student learning. In sum, the future islikely to reveal an unprecedented demand for institutions--public andprivate alike--to justify their efficient stewardship of funds in theservice of specific public needs. The third major transforming force is technology. A recentconference report from the National Association of College andUniversity Business Officers (NACUBO NACUBO National Association of College and University Business Officers ) was headlined, "Technologydrives changes in higher education." As the accompanying articlenoted, "speaker after speaker told participants that the acceptanceof revolutionary technology on campus was no longer a choice, but anecessity" (Technology ..., 1996, p. 6). The future impact oftechnological change on university life will be dramatic: the locus ofeducation will continue to shift from teaching to learning; there willno longer be a single or standard way to learn (such aslecture/discussion); faculty will increasingly emphasize criticalthinking, collaborative skills, and learning strategies (learning how tolearn) over specific content mastery; faculty development activitieswill be greatly expanded to accommodate these new demands. These forces will meet--at least initially--with facultyresistance. Accustomed to autonomy unprecedented in any otherprofession, the university faculty increasingly will be forced tojustify both their teaching and research to non-academics. As the needfor change becomes manifest to the public, demands on higher educationwill increase, as will faculty resistance. University administratorswill be caught in the middle, given the delicate task of harmonizingessential academic integrity with the needs of an increasingly restivepublic. The results of this process provide yet another example of what arecent article in the Chronicle of Higher Education termed "Thewidening gap in higher education" (The Widening ..., 1996). Thesides typically line up in the following fashion: faculty accuse theiradministrators of being too business-oriented and unconcerned withprotecting the traditions at the heart of university life.Administrators, on the other hand, criticize faculty for beingunrealistic and self-defeating in their stubborn resistance toefficiency and accountability. It is our thesis that with effective leadership the public'sdemand for increased efficiency and accountability can be accommodatedwhile preserving the integrity and autonomy of the academic enterprise.Unfortunately, university administrators are not known for theirvisionary leadership and effective management any more than faculty areknown for their flexibility. A crisis in higher education can be avoidedonly if academic administrators are fully informed of the obstacles tochange and utilize the most effective means of implementing it. In theremainder of this paper we discuss the principal obstacles to change andthe most effective strategies for overcoming them. THE CHANGE RESISTANT UNIVERSITY Academic organization is profoundly conservative and changeresistant. Virtually every major academic institution from tenure toacademic governance strengthens the ability of faculty to resist change.Let us briefly examine the variables that facilitate change resistance. Strategic Importance. The indispensability of higher education inproducing post industrial society's knowledge workers givesacademics tremendous social and political leverage. No one questions theimportance of higher education and the faculty who teach the nextgeneration of knowledge workers. Nor do they question the value of theresearch, at least in the scientific and technical areas. Academics regularly serve at the highest levels of government, arerepresented on the boards of many Fortune 500 corporations, and serve asconsultants to business, government, and various nonprofit agencies. Theresearch and writing by academics have a tremendous impact on everythingfrom scientific advance to the latest management techniques. And inevery poll, the job of the professor is rated as one of the mostprestigious (Nako and Treas, 1994). Thus the role of the academic is one of the most important in theoccupational system of postindustrial society. And academics, howevervaguely (in many cases not at all vaguely), recognize their importance.This gives academics a status within the university that is unrivaled byworkers in any other industry. It also makes university managementextraordinarily difficult. Tenure. The second defining feature of the internal environment ofthe university is tenure (Wolf, 1996, pp. 59-60). The impact of tenureon the management of the university can scarcely be overstated o��ver��state?tr.v. o��ver��stat��ed, o��ver��stat��ing, o��ver��statesTo state in exaggerated terms. See Synonyms at exaggerate.o . It istenure that makes the essential character of university managementpolitical. In most universities tenure approaches 80 percent, in manyuniversities it is higher yet. And of the faculty involved in academicgovernance, the tenured ten��ured?adj.Having tenure: tenured civil servants; tenured faculty.Adj. 1. tenured proportion approaches 100 percent. Although as an institution tenure was devised to protect academicfreedom--and may still do so--it is also the right to lifetimeemployment. (The only approximate equivalent to tenure is the lifetimeappointment to the bench of some judges. Thus tenure is a fairly uniqueinstitution and difficult to justify.) The principal practical implication of tenure for management is tomake university governance highly political. University management ismore akin to elected political office than it is to a managementposition in business. Just as a politician cannot fire his or herconstituents, a dean or president cannot fire his or her faculty. Soacademic managers need to be consensus builders; they need to be able toprovide a vision and rally the faculty in support of it. No effectivemanager relies heavily on intimidation--the threat of being fired--butin most nonacademic organizations the bottom line that the employeeeither pulls the oar or gets out of the boat is understood. In academicorganizations, for most faculty, there is no bottom line. Professional Orientation. The role of the academic has twodimensions. One dimension relates to the institution and centers aroundteaching and service. The other role relates to the profession andcenters around research (Wolfe, 1996). And while much lip service lip servicen.Verbal expression of agreement or allegiance, unsupported by real conviction or action; hypocritical respect: isgiven to teaching, real recognition (and substantial personalsatisfaction) comes from research. The best universities derive theirreputation largely from the quality of their faculty. The quality of afaculty is largely a function of the amount and quality of theirresearch. Indeed a good case can be made that, other things being equal,the best teachers are those most current in their fields, and thatcurrency and research are inextricably in��ex��tri��ca��ble?adj.1. a. So intricate or entangled as to make escape impossible: an inextricable maze; an inextricable web of deceit.b. linked. While those who do littleresearch may protest, it is clear that in the academic hierarchy theresearchers are first string players and the teachers are on the bench. The researchers have the least institutional loyalty and tend to beless involved in academic governance. They also tend to be mostsatisfied with their status and most willing to leave decision making onissues beyond their immediate interest and expertise to others. Theteachers are more bound up in the institution and more interested inacademic governance. By having less accomplished research records theteachers are less mobile, and recognize that the course of theinstitution will have a direct bearing on their careers. So for the university's reputation in the larger community,the researchers are most important, but for day-to-day governance theteachers are most important. This bifurcation BifurcationA term used in finance that refers to a splitting of something into two separate pieces.Notes:Generally, this term is used to refer to the splitting of a security into two separate pieces for the purpose of complex taxation advantages. is a constant sources oftension for university management. Academic Governance. The fourth important element of the internalenvironment of the university is academic self-governance. Academicself-governance has a long tradition in American higher education. Thebasic rationale is that in matters of academic content and to a lesserextent policy, academic specialists are the ultimate authorities (Wolfe,1996). It is academics in the discipline who first judge acolleague's work or recommend a new curriculum because only theyhave the relevant expertise. The peer review process that is at the foundation of academicself-governance differs from, say, the quality teams common in businessin that the peer review process is internally focused and selfcontained, whereas the quality team is a means to an end outside theteam. The epitome of peer review is in research. Here academics evaluateresearch with reference to their own discipline. What people outside thediscipline think ultimately is irrelevant. Quality teams evaluate eachother and the production process with the objective of satisfying theconsumer of the product or service. The internal orientation of the peerreview translated into academic governance is a close modernapproximation approximation/ap��prox��i��ma��tion/ (ah-prok?si-ma��shun)1. the act or process of bringing into proximity or apposition.2. a numerical value of limited accuracy. to the medieval guild. Thus academic governance in the university is remarkably insular insular/in��su��lar/ (-sdbobr-ler) pertaining to the insula or to an island, as the islands of Langerhans. in��su��laradj.Of or being an isolated tissue or island of tissue. .In theory students and the needs of society count. In practice the needsof academics prevail. Academic self governance is not confined con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. to academic matters alone.Since almost anything that is done in the university can affect academicmatters, there is justification for academic control of the entireuniversity. In "normal" times the faculty concern themselveswith issues more or less directly related to academic affairs--promotionand tenure, curriculum, research, and the like. In times of rapid changeand great stress, however, the line between academic self-governance andmanagerial authority becomes blurred. Faculty may make efforts tocontrol management. When this occurs there is a crisis in managerialauthority. When a substantial portion of the faculty lose confidence in thepurpose and effectiveness of academic administrators the crisis inmanagerial authority expands. Typically the academic senate will developa list of particulars--abuses of power, evidence of incompetence, poorjudgment, and the like--ultimately leading to a vote of no confidence.Once a successful vote of no confidence is conducted, theadministrator--usually the president or equivalent topadministrator--never fully recovers his or her effectiveness andauthority and often is forced to resign. A vote of no confidence is tobe avoided at all costs. And even the possibility of such a vote canparalyze par��a��lyzev.To affect with paralysis; cause to be paralytic. administration. THE CHANGE RESISTANT INDIVIDUAL So far we have discussed change resistance from an organizationalperspective. Ultimately, however, the stress which accompanies changeinevitably is experienced as a personal problem by individuals. One ofthe chief pitfalls in managing change in the 90s is underestimating theimportance of attending to the "human factor." Managementstrategies which ignore or minimize the impact of change on employeesand overlook motivational concerns are susceptible to failure orsabotage no matter how well they are conceived otherwise. How do people typically respond to change? Beyond the truism thatresistance is the initial response of most people to change, the pictureis a bit more complex. Organizational psychologists describe a processof responding which may be characterized by five loosely bounded stageswhich occur in approximately the following sequence: 1) Shock/Denial identifies the time during which individualsattempt to hold onto past patterns through minimizing, denying, orignoring change; 2) Negativity/Resistance refers to the period when individuals arepreoccupied with the threats and problems associated with change,responding with anger, distress and blame; 3) Shifting is the stage when individuals begin to coperealistically with change; 4) Searching/Experimenting identifies the stage during which newdirections and possibilities are explored with a renewed sense ofpurpose and energy; and 5) Re-Commitment/Balance is the final stage when adaptation isfully implemented and a new homeostasis homeostasisAny self-regulating process by which a biological or mechanical system maintains stability while adjusting to changing conditions. Systems in dynamic equilibrium reach a balance in which internal change continuously compensates for external change in a feedback is achieved. There are several ways in which people fail to complete the changeprocess. First, they may get stuck in one phase. For example, in thefirst stage, shock/denial, faculty may avoid learning to use E-mail orretrieving budget information by computer, preferring instead to stickto time-tested methods of sending hard copy memos or collecting data byphone. It does not take long for this reaction to cause problems in afast-paced university. An even more common example of getting stuck isassociated with the negativity/resistance stage where, followingdownsizing (1) Converting mainframe and mini-based systems to client/server LANs.(2) To reduce equipment and associated costs by switching to a less-expensive system. (jargon) downsizing or restructuring, a university's climate becomesdominated by pessimism, blame, and cynicism. A second way individuals get in trouble with the process of changehappens when, by design or default, they attempt to "skipacross" several stages without taking time to work through them.For instance, administrators may be confronted with resistance to newideas in the form of their subordinates raising questions ("Why isthis necessary?" "How will I benefit?") or by theirfailure to implement management decisions. When faced with thisresponse, administrators may react by attacking or blaming theindividual, rather than by seeking to prepare them mentally andemotionally to commit to the new ideas. Authoritarian, power-assertionstrategies may gain short term compliance, but in general they spell outlong term trouble for future change efforts. A third challenge in responding to change occurs when too muchchange is attempted in too short a time. Not only does this increasinglyfamiliar phenomenon tax the time and financial resources of auniversity, it puts individuals into mental and emotional overload. Forinstance, consider the situation--not altogether atypical--where adepartment chair attempts to learn the software applications for a newnetwork, while at the same time being confronted with a new budgetingprocess, an altered consultative process, and a directive to relocatefaculty offices. A person subject to such change may find it verydifficult to concentrate, let alone bring productivity up to anacceptable level. There are simply limits to how much new information aperson can take in, understand, and implement at any given point intime. Motivation or readiness to engage in change is a fourth humanfactor which greatly impacts the effectiveness of change efforts.Prochaska and diClemente (1992) study how people change and havedeveloped a process model which has widespread applicability. Theirmodel includes the following stages: 1) Precontemplation--characterized by resistance, reluctance, andunwillingness to address change because the individual at this pointholds no internal belief in the need for change or is too fatigued ordiscouraged from past failures to try again; 2) Contemplation--characterized by ambivalence and uncertaintyabout whether to proceed with the change; 3) Action--characterized by a person who is clearly interested inmodifying his/her behavior and is vigorously moving toward a change; 4) Maintenance--characterized by holding onto gains and seekingsupport in avoiding a return to one's previous condition. The Prochaska and diClemente (1992) model suggests that strategiesadministrators apply to promote change need to take into account ways tomotivate their subordinates. That is, the strategy must help people tosee the relevance of the change (precontemplation), to help resolvetheir ambivalence about the change (contemplation), to consider andselect from viable change alternatives (action), and to hold onto anygains which are realized as a result of the change (maintenance). For example, consider the introduction of a new budgeting processin a university. In order to minimize resistance and negativism negativism/neg��a��tiv��ism/ (neg��ah-ti-vizm?) opposition to suggestion or advice; behavior opposite to that appropriate to a specific situation or against the wishes of others, including direct resistance to efforts to be moved. ,university administrators, following the Prochaska and diClementeprocess model, would place considerable effort into educating the keyimplementors, stressing the reasons for the change, the advantages ofmaking it, and the consequences of failure to do so. They would offerchoices, where appropriate, and solicit suggestions for implementation.Finally, they recommend a review to assure accountability, encouragesuccess, and provide correction where necessary. These steps would befollowed to enhance motivation and extend the gains. CHANGE STRATEGIES Managing the change resistant university requires a multiplicity oftools and strategies (Rowe and Mason, 1987; Boleman and Deal, 1991).First and foremost, it requires high level academic managers tounderstand clearly the factors that inhibit change. Universityorganization is such that it requires a different constellation ofmanagement strategies than either government or private organizations.Outlined below are strategies that, if employed properly, can lead tomore effective university management. UNDERSTAND YOUR CONSTITUENTS Critical to the success of any strategic management plan is athorough understanding of faculty attitudes. In university politics asin civic politics the attitudes of the most active and involved facultyare usually more extreme than and often not representative of theconcerns of the majority. In university politics as in civic politicsthe activists disproportionately shape the collective agenda. In civicpolitics, however, there are periodic elections that allow the majorityto pass judgment on the formulations of the activists and provideguidance to elected officials. In the university there are no periodicelections. The faculty senate, or equivalent faculty governance body, isconsidered largely irrelevant by most faculty, thus not representative(Renewing ..., 1996). (In most universities the departments"elect" senators, but frequently anyone who is interested is"elected." This self selection process, combined with thedisinterest dis��in��ter��est?n.1. Freedom from selfish bias or self-interest; impartiality.2. Lack of interest; indifference.tr.v.To divest of interest.Noun 1. of the faculty majority, encourages the senators to feelmore like independent agents than representatives responsible to theirdepartment.) The senate does, however, provide an excellent forum and asource of legitimacy for activists. The absence of processes that provide management with reliableinformation on faculty attitudes underscores the need for independentinformation gathering. We recommend regular faculty opinion surveys thatassess faculty attitudes toward management and important strategicissues. The survey should be combined with focus groups that includecarefully selected segments of the faculty and explore issues in-depth. What we are suggesting is precisely analogous to the opiniongathering techniques employed by politicians. The opinions of activistsmust still be taken into account, but with an accurate gauge of generalfaculty opinion, those of activists can be placed into a more meaningfulcontext. We must emphasize that our advocacy of faculty opinion surveys doesnot imply management should relinquish leadership responsibility.Effective managers cannot be bound by the imagination or current opinionof the faculty majority. Accurately gauging faculty attitudes andopinion, however, provides information that can be used to assess theeffectiveness of managerial strategies. The information periodicallygathered should thus be used to facilitate strategy development ratherthan goal selection. Finally, if the decision is made to conduct a survey, it isimportant to decide first if the results are to be made public.Different questions may be asked and specific questions wordeddifferently if the survey is to be made public than if it is to be usedexclusively by management. In any event, the worst case scenario This article is about the television show. For other uses, see worst-case scenario.Worst Case Scenario is a reality show aired on TBS in 2002 in the U.S.. shouldbe considered in constructing the survey--that what was intended to beproprietary information will be "leaked." Care should be takenso that such an eventuality e��ven��tu��al��i��ty?n. pl. e��ven��tu��al��i��tiesSomething that may occur; a possibility.eventualityNounpl -ties would not undermine the strategic purposesof management. DEVELOP AND ARTICULATE A VISION To accomplish anything of substance an organization must have aclear sense of purpose and direction. And it is the responsibility ofmanagement to clearly articulate that purpose and direction. The purposeand direction should be based on or derived from a strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. process. The development of the strategic plan should be used as a toolfor creating consensus around goals established by or at least heavilyinfluenced by management. In the strategic planning process faculty look to academic leadersfor direction. It is critical that direction and focus is provided. Inthe absence of leadership by management, activists will step into thevacuum, and management will lose control of the process. Once thegeneral focus or vision is developed it is important to engage thefaculty so consensus can be reached. In developing the strategic plan three important principles shouldbe kept in mind. The first is to keep it simple! The mistake academicsrepeatedly make is to try to be comprehensive. Comprehensiveness, whilea virtue in research, is fatal in strategic planning. At any one levelof planning the goals should be clear, simple, and limited. There shouldalso be a very succinct suc��cinct?adj. suc��cinct��er, suc��cinct��est1. Characterized by clear, precise expression in few words; concise and terse: a succinct reply; a succinct style.2. vision or mission statement that encapsulatesthe entire strategic plan. The second principle is believe in it! You must truly believe inyour vision and the essence of your strategic plan. If your constituentsperceive that you are not faithful to the organizational vision you havelost the battle and all collective effort will devolve devolvev. when property is automatically transferred from one party to another by operation of law, without any act required of either past or present owner. The most common example is passing of title to the natural heir of a person upon his death. into individualinterest. The third and final principle is to repeat it! Never tire ofspreading the word. You must be an evangelist evangelist(ĭvăn`jəlĭst)[Gr.,=Gospel], title given to saints Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The four evangelists are often symbolized respectively by a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, on the basis of Rev. 4.6–10. for your vision. Mostmanagers don't have the oratorical or��a��tor��i��cal?adj.Of, relating to, or characteristic of an orator or oratory.ora��tor ability of a Martin Luther King,but often what can't be accomplished through sheer force of oratory oratory,the art of swaying an audience by eloquent speech. In ancient Greece and Rome oratory was included under the term rhetoric, which meant the art of composing as well as delivering a speech. can be accomplished through repetition. BUILD ALLIANCES The third general strategy for leadership success is to buildalliances. Politicians are always aware of who supports what issues. Thesuccessful politician is a coalition builder, recognizing that there aredifferent coalitions for different issues. A clear understanding of your own goals for the organization willfacilitate the identification of allies. As is quite obvious in theabstract but much less so in practice, you need a clear understanding ofwhat your goals are before you can identify allies. Remember an ally isone who supports you because it is in his or her interest do so. Thusallies are coalitions of faculty whose composition changes depending onthe issue. In general there are two sources of support: faculty not activelyinvolved in the issues and the activists. By and large the activists inthe university context are those committed to the status quo [Latin, The existing state of things at any given date.] Status quo ante bellum means the state of things before the war. The status quo to be preserved by a preliminary injunction is the last actual, peaceable, uncontested status which preceded the pending controversy. . It isalmost invariably in��var��i��a��ble?adj.Not changing or subject to change; constant.in��vari��a��bil the case that academic administrators propose changeand activist faculty oppose it (Renewing, 1996). Yet to accomplish anysignificant change it is necessary to coopt key faculty activists. It is also necessary to mobilize faculty whose interests areconsistent with the particular goal being pursued but who are notnormally active. If, for example, the goal is to promote appliedresearch, you should identify those already involved in such researchand use them to build a support base. At the same time you shouldidentify a faculty activist who is willing to support the goal or can bepersuaded to support the goal. Thus the coopted faculty leader as wellas the applied researchers can form your support base. DEVELOP PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH KEY MANAGERS AND FACULTY Alliances are based on interest and are issue dependent. The sameindividual may be a supporter on one issue and an opponent on another.Personal relationships transcend issues and are maintained over time.Any manager must be able to count on the personal loyalty of his or herkey subordinates. This does not mean, for instance, that the vicepresidents and deans must privately agree with the president on everyissue. But it means that after a decision is made everyone speaks withone voice. This assumes a personal commitment of the management"team" to the "team" leader beyond individualissues. This relationship is relatively easy to establish among managers(although it is more difficult in the university than in businessbecause of the academic culture of individualism). The team approach ismore difficult to establish between managers and nonmanagers.Nevertheless managers should develop close personal relationships withkey faculty leaders. The advantage of such a relationship is that itgenerates a sort of support reserve and continuity of authority. It is also an advantage for a leader to relate to faculty ininformal, even personal settings. Social activities, a birthday card orChristmas card with a personal note, hand written notes of thanks orcongratulation add the "personal touch" to management thatencourages personal commitment in return. ORGANIZE EFFECTIVELY It is important to delineate lines of authority and responsibilityclearly. The university president may ultimately be responsible for theentire university, but if he or she attempts to run the organizationsingle handedly failure is almost certain. A president who over controlsdestroys morale and prevents the development of a team spirit among themanagers. Qualified managers want clear but broadly definedresponsibilities and the authority to carry them out. Managers withclearly defined goals can be held accountable for their success--orfailure. Broadly defined responsibilities and commensurate authorityresults in decentralization de��cen��tral��ize?v. de��cen��tral��ized, de��cen��tral��iz��ing, de��cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To distribute the administrative functions or powers of (a central authority) among several local authorities. . Decentralization can also result in greatlyincreased innovation, with individual managers encouraged to innovate.As long as the goals of the managers are linked to those of theorganization as a whole, this innovation can have a very beneficialeffect. It is important for the president to designate clearly the primaryimportance of academic affairs. Thus the provost or vice president foracademic affairs should be second only to the president in status, andthe deans should be an important part of the senior administration. Theprovost should have primary authority in academic affairs, and the deansshould have primary authority in their schools. With the schools asindependent units, the faculty will feel empowered to takeresponsibility for their actions. The result of this more decentralized de��cen��tral��ize?v. de��cen��tral��ized, de��cen��tral��iz��ing, de��cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To distribute the administrative functions or powers of (a central authority) among several local authorities. organization is moreinnovation and creativity, higher morale, and a greater acceptance ofresponsibility. The downside is that the president cannot takeresponsibility for every success, but neither need he or she takeresponsibility for every failure. In the long run the chance oforganizational success is increased greatly--an achievement that willaccrue to the benefit of the president. REWARD GOOD BEHAVIOR Orderly and lawful action; conduct that is deemed proper for a peaceful and law-abiding individual.The definition of good behavior depends upon how the phrase is used. Set up an incentive structure rewarding behavior that supportsorganizational goals and punishing behavior that does not. Structuredrewards are the best way to link individual behavior to organizationalgoals. To be effective, however, the criteria establishing the linkagebetween the reward and the behavior must be clear and consistentlyapplied. If the goal is to promote good teaching, define what that meansand reward it. Many research universities, for example, are criticizedfor poor undergraduate instruction. Yet it is commonly understood byfaculty at these universities that good teaching doesn't count inany context that matters, including tenure, promotion, and pay. Ifmanagement desires to place more emphasis on teaching it must not onlytalk about its importance it must reward it. Ultimately this means thatminimum standards for teaching must be established and those who do notmeet those standards are not rewarded, regardless of, say, theirresearch accomplishments. All available incentives--merit pay, tenure and promotion, travelsupport, institutional grants, and the like--should be modeled to rewarddesired behaviors and punish undesired behavior. The goal is tounderstand the incentives available and to make them work in the desireddirection. In devising incentives for faculty, there is one important caveat:incentives that conflict with professional norms are difficult toimplement. What we normally consider the best academics--those activelyinvolved in their profession, primarily through research andscholarship--have loyalties that transcend the institution. Thus, tocontinue the example, if management wants to emphasize teaching (aninstitutional goal) it must be careful to not do this to the exclusionof research (a professional goal). It becomes self defeating in mostuniversities to reward teaching to the exclusion of research. Ifinstitutional goals are pursued to the exclusion of professional goalsthere will be demoralization de��mor��al��ize?tr.v. de��mor��al��ized, de��mor��al��iz��ing, de��mor��al��iz��es1. To undermine the confidence or morale of; dishearten: an inconsistent policy that demoralized the staff. of the professionally oriented facultyfirst and an exodus later. This may be a price management is willing topay, but it is a price that should be clear before action is taken. CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF CHANGE ON INDIVIDUALS Taking the time to understand how planned changes affectindividuals and what their reaction is likely to be pays off in the longrun by minimizing the defensiveness and resistance that so frequentlysabotage organizational change. Begin with an assessment of how receptive individuals are likely tobe to the planned change One of the foundational definitions in the field of organizational development (aka OD) is planned change:“Organization Development is an effort planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned . This will allow managers to tailor theircommunications more precisely and determine how much collaboration isneeded. Different strategies are called for depending on how aware andreceptive the faculty are to the proposed change. If faculty are unaware of the need for a particular change,implementation efforts should be preceded by efforts to explain itsnecessity. Alternatively, if there is awareness of but a good deal ofambivalence or negativism toward a proposed change, early educationefforts should explain the advantages and possibilities the proposedchange offers, while spelling out the disadvantages and negativeconsequences of the status quo. In those situations where motivation forchange is high, communication can focus primarily on the steps to befollowed and deadlines to be met. Support may be strengthened further byincluding strong statements of support and affirmation for how thechange fits into the administration's vision for the institution. Finally, follow-up is needed after planned change efforts.Follow-up is a powerful though often overlooked strategy for managementto demonstrate concern about how change affects individuals. When mucheffort and energy is invested in initiating change and no subsequentfollow-up occurs, the para message sent is that management does not careabout individuals, only about its own agenda. Follow-up provides both astatement of interest and accountability which help to correct,maintain, and propel the organization forward while building morale. CONCLUSION As Paul Strebel (1996) notes in the Harvard Business Review Harvard Business Review is a general management magazine published since 1922 by Harvard Business School Publishing, owned by the Harvard Business School. A monthly research-based magazine written for business practitioners, it claims a high ranking business readership and ,management directed change in organizations often fails because managersdo not fully realize the complexity of the interpersonal dimension inorganizations (Strebel, 1996, p. 87). Even corporate managers cannotexpect their organizations to change course simply by elaborating astrategic direction and ordering compliance. Change in universities iseven more difficult to accomplish. Organizations function according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. acomplex of formal and informal rules and expectations--understandingsabout how the organization should be managed and the rights andresponsibilities of the individual member. The informal rules andexpectations have as much to do with how an organization functions asthe formal rules. Thus effective managers employ a variety of strategiesto accomplish organizational change. The need for multiple strategies carefully orchestrated or��ches��trate?tr.v. or��ches��trat��ed, or��ches��trat��ing, or��ches��trates1. To compose or arrange (music) for performance by an orchestra.2. toaccomplish organizational change is even more pronounced in universitiesthan in business. It is our belief that through a better understandingof why and how universities resist change we can better accomplishchange. 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