CHURCH BURNING: USING A CONTEMPORARY ISSUE TO TEACH COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION.

CHURCH BURNING: USING A CONTEMPORARY ISSUE TO TEACH COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION. THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE REPORTED 28 incidents of church burningin African-American communities in the 17 months prior to May 1996(Fletcher, 1996a). Most of the churches were located in isolated ruralareas of the South and Southwest and two churches dated back to thebeginning of the century (Associated Press, 1996). Burning a blackchurch is more than destruction of a place of worship Noun 1. place of worship - any building where congregations gather for prayerhouse of God, house of prayer, house of worshipbethel - a house of worship (especially one for sailors) . Because the blackchurch is a vital coping resource in African-American communities(Allen-Meares & Burnam, 1995; Daly, Jennings, Beckett, &Leashore, 1995) and integral to the daily lives of residents(Boyd-Franklin, 1989), church burning can be especially devastating dev��as��tate?tr.v. dev��as��tat��ed, dev��as��tat��ing, dev��as��tates1. To lay waste; destroy.2. To overwhelm; confound; stun: was devastated by the rude remark. . The initial reactions of African-American communities to the1995-96 church fires and the powerful responses which occurred lateroffer a useful context through which social work educators can teachempowerment-based community intervention (Gutierrez, GlenMaye, &DeLois, 1995; Weil & Gamble, 1995). Following a brief overview ofthe role of the black church in African-American communities, thisarticle discusses the responses of African-American parishioners to theburning of their churches; Weil and Gamble's (1995) models ofcommunity practice; and ways to use church burning to teach communityorganization principles and skills to social work students. The Church in African-American Communities Black churches are often considered the pulse of African-Americancommunities. They offer African Americans an opportunity to worship in aunique way and are usually the first institutions to which parishionersturn when in distress. Early African Americans regarded the church as ahaven and the only institution that belonged entirely to their community(Boyd-Franklin, 1989). Churches also serve as political mediums and,with the exception of radio and television, continue to be the mostefficient means of communication in African-American communities. Churchaffiliation diminishes isolation (Daly et al., 1995) and provides anopportunity to interact with positive role models who are themselvesresidents of the community. More importantly, black churches offer love,caring, and a sense of belonging, thereby supporting the social andinterpersonal needs of parishioners (Carter, 1997). Approximately 70% of African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. adults are affiliated with ablack church (Billingsley, 1992), and many continue to considerthemselves parishioners even after they cease to attend services.Churches are an essential part of the natural helping systems that existin African-American communities (Daly, et al., 1995). Natural helpingsystems, which include unlicensed beauticians, barbers, andtransportation providers, reduce stress and normalize normalizeto convert a set of data by, for example, converting them to logarithms or reciprocals so that their previous non-normal distribution is converted to a normal one. communityenvironments. Because of the central role played by black churches inAfrican-American communities, church arson creates a serious and suddenloss. Through readings, exercises, and class discussions, social workstudents can thus learn appropriate and effective responses to similarcrises. Models of Community Intervention Several models of community practice are currently cited in theliterature (Gutierrez et al., 1995; Rivera and Erlich, 1992; Rothman,1995; Taylor & Roberts, 1985). Based on an extensive review ofcommunity practice models, Weil and Gamble's (1995) entry in theEncyclopedia of Social Work provides a framework that combines eightextant ex��tant?adj.1. Still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct: extant manuscripts.2. Archaic Standing out; projecting. models. The models were selected based on clear delineation oftheir basic purposes and desired outcomes; they include: (1)Neighborhood and Community Organizing The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. ; (2) Organizing FunctionalCommunities; (3) Community Social and Economic Development; (4) SocialPlanning; (5) Program Development and Community Liaison; (6) SocialMovements This is a partial list of social movements. Abahlali baseMjondolo - South African shack dwellers' movement Animal rights movement Anti-consumerism Anti-war movement Anti-globalization movement Brights movement Civil rights movement ; (7) Political and Social Action; and (8) Coalitions.Advantages of the framework by Weil and Gamble over models such asRothman and Taylor and Roberts are that Weil and Gamble distinguishbetween local geographic organizing and organizing functionalcommunities at the local, regional, state, national, or internationallevels, and that they make clear differences between social development,which is generally empowerment-based, and economic development, whichhas more of a technical focus (Weil, 1996). Although the models are somewhat conceptually discrete, in practicesettings they may be mixed (Rothman, 1995) or may occur sequentially(Grosser & Mondros, 1985). Both mixed and sequential application ofthe framework occurred during the recent epidemic of church burning.Over time, indigenous organizers in African-American communities,consciously or not, used elements from Neighborhood and CommunityOrganizing, Organizing Functional Communities, and Community Social andEconomic Development to address church burning. Each of the eight modelspresented by Weil and Gamble is briefly described below; Political andSocial Action and Coalition Building models are discussed in greaterdetail in sections following, as they portray more adequately theresponses of African-American communities to church burning. Neighborhood and Community Organizing focuses on assisting localresidents to gain power so that they will have greater influence overdecisions affecting their social, political, economic, and physicalenvironment. Conscientization and capacity building are among theprimary processes, as are identifying issues and developing,implementing, and evaluating strategies. Generally, the model placesequal emphasis on capacity development and task completion. Social workroles germane to this model are organizer, facilitator, coach, andteacher. Organizing Functional Communities involves initiating social changeregarding a special concern by empowering residents to advocateeffectively on their own behalf. The scope may be local or global, andthe main function is achieving social justice in the designated area bychanging policies and social behaviors. The social work roles ofwriter/communicator, organizer, advocate, and facilitator are relevantto this model. Community Social and Economic Development refers to transformingindividuals and communities so they can initiate and maintain grassrootsprojects Grassroots Projects is a Dutch international charity organisation that helps the oppressed poor. Grassroots Projects started in July 2005 when several social globalists wanted an alternative to the current international charity work. and plans, and improve their economic, social, and homeenvironments (Weil, 1996). Social work roles associated with the modelare negotiator, promoter, teacher, planner, and manager. Social Planning relies on rational problem solving problem solvingProcess involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. to develop,expand, and coordinate social services social servicesNoun, plwelfare services provided by local authorities or a state agency for people with particular social needssocial servicesnpl → servicios mpl socialesand social policies. Importantroles of social workers include researcher, proposal writer,communicator, and manager. Program Development and Community Liaison can be described ascreating new services or redirecting or expanding existing agencyprograms to make them more responsive to community needs (Weil, 1996).Spokespersons, planners, managers, and proposal writers are theprincipal roles that social workers occupy when using this model. Social Movements often focus on changing political and socialnorms, and when successful "they provide a new paradigm New ParadigmIn the investing world, a totally new way of doing things that has a huge effect on business.Notes:The word "paradigm" is defined as a pattern or model, and it has been used in science to refer to a theoretical framework. forparticular populations" (Weil, 1996, p. 56). The typical roles ofsocial workers using this model are advocates and facilitators. Political and Social Action facilitates social justice by changingpolicy or policymakers or by preventing corporations from takingadvantage of low-income groups (Weil, 1996). Inequalities are challengedand decision makers are directly confronted when they ignore communityneeds. Groups are taught to change unjust conditions in theirenvironment and are empowered by reinforcing their belief in theirself-efficacy (Rubin & Rubin, 1992). It is common practice in social action campaigns to document aproblem, choose a target group that can offer a solution, symbolize theissue, and use pressure tactics to implement changes that have beenpreviously agreed upon Adj. 1. agreed upon - constituted or contracted by stipulation or agreement; "stipulatory obligations"stipulatorynoncontroversial, uncontroversial - not likely to arouse controversy by the target group (Rubin & Rubin, 1992).Public officials and administrators are often the objects of change anda major strategy of this intervention is mobilizing-public opinion.Organizers place considerable emphasis on building political power andpromoting institutional change that will result in social justice. Whenpolitical and social action occurs on a grassroots level, social workersand other professionals must be capable organizers and also possessresearch, media, public relations public relations,activities and policies used to create public interest in a person, idea, product, institution, or business establishment. By its nature, public relations is devoted to serving particular interests by presenting them to the public in the most , and fund raising skills (Weil &Gamble, 1995). Social workers using this model employ their skills asadvocates, organizers, and researchers. In Weil and Gamble's Coalition Building model (1995), aneclectic group of organizational representatives, while maintainingtheir autonomy, unite to influence external institutions on a commonissue or issues. Representatives generally amass a power base that isbroad enough to affect the direction of social programs or demand commonresources that are needed by members. Coalitions are generallytime-limited, but while they are in effect, they can be time consuming.Roles of social workers who help in coalition building are negotiator,mediator, and spokesperson. Political and Social Action, Coalitions, and Church Burning Political and Social Action Aspects of the Political and Social Action model demonstrated byAfrican-American communities during the recent epidemic of churchburning included: empowerment through enhancing self-efficacy andbuilding political strength; refuting inequitable decisions; maintainingsocial justice; appropriately symbolizing sym��bol��ize?v. sym��bol��ized, sym��bol��iz��ing, sym��bol��iz��esv.tr.1. To serve as a symbol of: community issues; andmobilizing public opinion. The communities where churches had burned demonstratedself-efficacy when confronting the U.S. Department of Justice about thestyle of their investigations. Initially, ministers and theirparishioners perceived federal agents as being generally accusatory andinsensitive. More specifically, parishioners were offended by what theysaw as federal agents treating local clergy as suspects in the arson oftheir own churches (Goodstein, 1996a; White, 1996). The community notonly considered such treatment of clergy denigrating den��i��grate?tr.v. den��i��grat��ed, den��i��grat��ing, den��i��grates1. To attack the character or reputation of; speak ill of; defame.2. , it also violated acore value of African-American communities, where church leaders areheld in high esteem and trusted by parishioners. Formal complaints bycommunity leaders to the U.S. Department of Justice caused federalofficers to modify their investigations, and challenging Justiceofficials mobilized power within African-American communities byreinforcing the strength of local clergy. Examining the process by which communities confronted the style offederal investigators may help social work students gain insight intothe relationship between increased self-efficacy and communityempowerment. Discussion questions might include the following: Why didreinforcing the efficacy of clergy empower residents? Who were some ofthe players in the empowerment process? Class members might also examinethe importance of timing in the empowerment process and roles fororganizers that might enhance the efficacy of residents. Study ofAfrican-American communities' responses to church burning couldshow students that community power can be mobilized even in the midst Adv. 1. in the midst - the middle or central part or point; "in the midst of the forest"; "could he walk out in the midst of his piece?"midmost oftrauma if residents are helped to see their strengths and aresufficiently passionate about an issue. Students could also learn thatincremental success can be empowering and that power is itselfsynergistic synergistic/syn��er��gis��tic/ (sin?er-jis��tik)1. acting together.2. enhancing the effect of another force or agent.syn��er��gis��ticadj.1. . The self-efficacy resulting from the community residents' ownsuccessful confrontation of Justice officials was reinforced by the helpthey received from sources outside of the community. For example,volunteers from Australia and throughout the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. providedlabor for rebuilding campaigns (Lane, 1996). Foundations donated over $4million for loans and other church construction costs (Goodstein,1996b). The National Council of Churches and the Christian Coalition Christian Coalition,organization founded to advance the agenda of political and social conservatives, mostly comprised of evangelical Protestant Republicans, and to preserve what it deems traditional American values. publicly condemned church arson, introduced numerous rebuilding andsecurity projects (Fletcher, 1996b), and applied pressure to insurancecompanies to prevent their cancellation of the policies of burnedchurches. Discussing ways in which the self-efficacy of parishioners wasstrengthened by the volunteer support of nonresidents may enable socialwork students to integrate theory and practice. Self-efficacy issupported by both empowerment theory (Gutierrez et al., 1995) andstrengths-oriented approaches to social work practice (Saleebey, 1992).A community's response to church arson can reveal how clientsystems are individually, socially, and politically empowered when theirself-efficacy is reinforced and when they are helped to see their ownstrengths. A major emphasis of political and social activists is politicalempowerment. During the rash of church burnings, African-Americancommunities increased their political power in part by uniting withlocal civil rights organizations such as the NAACP NAACPin full National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleOldest and largest U.S. civil rights organization. It was founded in 1909 to secure political, educational, social, and economic equality for African Americans; W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. and SouthernChristian Leadership Since the time of Jesus people have been claiming to be "Christian leaders." The idea of leadership as it is currently understood in its many variations and facets would have been little understood by Jesus' earliest followers. Conference. Effective use of political power inlocal communities received support from the president of the UnitedStates (Harris, 1996) and Congress. President Clinton, for example,allocated federal grants for rebuilding churches and authorized localcommunities to decide how monies awarded might best be used. The Congressional Black Caucus Congressional Black Caucus,organization of African-American members of the U.S. House of Representatives. Founded in 1970, it addresses legislative concerns of African Americans and other minority citizens, such as employment, welfare reform, minority business went beyond merely calling for thecapture of persons responsible for church fires by committing itself tohelping communities "address the climate that makes racial hatredpossible" (Goodstein, 1996b). Congress passed legislation whichbroadened the definition of "attacks on churches" (Booth,1996), and expanded the authority of federal prosecutors to address hatecrimes to church buildings. Several members of Congress held bipartisannews conferences to denounce de��nounce?tr.v. de��nounced, de��nounc��ing, de��nounc��es1. To condemn openly as being evil or reprehensible. See Synonyms at criticize.2. To accuse formally.3. church burning (Harris, 1996). The activities of President Clinton, Congress, and the communitiesthemselves suggest an inclusive orientation to political power.Small-group discussions in which students contrast this strategy to morepartisan approaches could help them to see the relationship betweenpolitical power and resource development. For instance, when localcommunities build a unified, inclusive political base, they are morelikely to attract the attention of politicians within their respectivestates. A unified political base can put state officials in a betterposition to move issues to the national agenda, which can in turnsignificantly increase the resources available at the local level. One of the more striking political acts of power undertaken byresidents was pressuring the Justice department to intensify andreconceptualize its investigations of church arson. Unlike Justiceofficials (Booth, 1996), many African Americans considered church firesracially motivated and part of a conspiracy to diminish the strongorganizing influence of churches in African-American communities(Chappell, 1996; White, 1996). Community leaders wrote letters toPresident Clinton, U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno Janet Reno (born July 21, 1938) was the first and to date only female Attorney General of the United States (1993–2001). She was nominated by President Bill Clinton on February 11, 1993, and confirmed on March 11. , and members ofCongress, enlisting their support and demanding that greaterconsideration be given to racial motives for the church fires. Becauseof sustained community pressure, more extensive investigations wereconducted, producing evidence that the fires were indeedracially-motivated (Booth, 1996). The African-American communities' persistence in challengingfederal investigators about the cause of church fires can highlight forstudents effective ways of refuting inequitable governmental decisions.To facilitate discussion, students could be given reading assignmentsthat describe contacts between groups such as the NAACP and justiceofficials (Fletcher, 1996b). They could then be asked to analyze theprocess by which the decisions of the Justice department were contested.This might be followed by brainstorming the risks and benefits, for bothcommunities and social work advocates, of challenging controversialgovernmental decisions. In completing assignments such as these,students are able to exercise their critical thinking skills (Gibbs& Gambrill, 1995). They may also become acutely aware of thepitfalls and benefits of advocating for vulnerable populations. A desired outcome of political and social action is ensuring socialjustice. Church burning threatens social justice in that, when raciallymotivated, it is a hate crime and a racist act (Smith & Peyser,1996). Exploring the implications of church burnings may help studentsunderstand how acts of hate, as well as seemingly innocuous in��noc��u��ousadj.Having no adverse effect; harmless.innocuous (i·näˈ·kyōō· responsessuch as denial and embarrassment, can impede social justice. In theexample mentioned above, most residents of African-American communitiesbelieved that church fires had racial overtones (Chappell, 1996).However, other residents disagreed or were embarrassed and hoped formalinvestigations would uncover causes other than arson or racialhostility. Residents of Boligee, Alabama Boligee is a town in Greene County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 369. GeographyBoligee is located at (32.763768, -88.025968)GR1.According to the U.S. (Pressley, 1996) and Pine Lake,Georgia Pine Lake is a city in DeKalb County, Georgia, United States. The population was 621 at the 2000 census. GeographyPine Lake is located at (33.791505, -84.206428)GR1. (Greene, 1996), for instance, stated that their towns wereneighborly neigh��bor��ly?adj.Having or exhibiting the qualities of a friendly neighbor.neighbor��li��ness n.Adj. 1. ones in which racism was not present. Although the rapport between community organizers and residents maybe strengthened by acknowledging the denial, fear, embarrassment, andhurt concerning church fires, organizers must identify these responsesas potential barriers to social justice. Denial can be a barrier, forexample, because it negates the need for communities to take action thatmight promote justice. Role-play exercises in which students vicariously vi��car��i��ous?adj.1. Felt or undergone as if one were taking part in the experience or feelings of another: read about mountain climbing and experienced vicarious thrills.2. experience the traumatic community responses to church burning withinthe context of social justice may help them identify responses which maybe barriers to social justice. It may be useful to have students designscenarios based on comments of ministers and parishioners such as these:"You hurt so bad when you see something like this. We had the bestof times in that church" (Pressley, 1996, p. A1); "I was thereat 4:30 [a.m.] and just cried" (Romano, 1996, p. A3). A follow-up assignment might be to have students compare fragilecommunity responses to more powerful ones such as that of renownedjournalist Dorothy Gilliam, who is herself African-American and thedaughter of a minister: The tragic rash of arson attacks against black churches has produced fear and frustration not only in black communities in the South and among pastors and civil rights lawyers but also among African Americans across the nation, who worry that the fires are igniting a new era of hatred, with arsonists attempting to completely dilute the heart and soul of the black community .... Black Americans will not let this heart and soul die .... Black pastors ... will struggle to rebuild their places of worship and at the same time strengthen the role and meaning of these black churches. (Gilliam, 1996, p. B1) Comparing the rich responses of African-American ministers,parishioners, and other residents through experiential learning methodsmay heighten students' awareness of the strengths withinAfrican-American communities, the breadth of loss caused by churchburning, and students' own need to advocate for social justice. Student commitment to social justice may be enhanced as well byhaving them explore racism as a cause of church burning. Through thisexploration, students can learn to operationalize professional ethics professional ethics,n the rules governing the conduct, transactions, and relationships within a profession and among its publics.professional ethics liability,n 1. and values. Social workers' ethical commitments to human diversity(Council on Social Work Education The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) is the national association for social work education in the United States of America.The CSWE sets and maintains standards of courses and accreditation of bachelor's degree's and Master's degree programs in social work. , 1992) and ethnic-sensitive practice(Devore & Schlesinger, 1992) require that we value the worth,dignity, and uniqueness of all individuals (Hepworth, Rooney, &Larsen, 1997). Encouraging students to write papers, develop fieldprojects, or become involved in community campaigns that speak outagainst church burning and other acts of racism may aid them ininternalizing the ethics and values of the social work profession. A further strategy of the Political and Social Action model ismobilizing public opinion. Ministers and other leaders inAfrican-American communities demonstrated this strategy liberally whenaddressing church burning (Associated Press, 1996). Community leadershighlighted the emotional states of parishioners, for example, byportraying parishioners as disillusioned dis��il��lu��sion?tr.v. dis��il��lu��sioned, dis��il��lu��sion��ing, dis��il��lu��sionsTo free or deprive of illusion.n.1. The act of disenchanting.2. The condition or fact of being disenchanted. and alienated individuals whowere experiencing shock, sadness, hurt, anger, embarrassment, andoutrage (Booth, 1996; Pressley, 1996; Romano, 1996). Then, to facilitatehealing and mobilize public opinion, ministers initiated communityforums, held prayer vigils, and dedicated sermons (From These Ashes,1996) to the losses experienced within their communities. In doing so,black churches fulfilled their traditional roles as centers ofcommunication and vehicles for addressing distress amongAfrican-American parishioners. In-depth analyses of the strategies usedby community leaders may enable social work students to symbolizecommunity issues and survey public opinion in ways that are sensitive tothe cultural context of African-American communities. Coalitions The coalitions that formed to address church burning capitalizedupon the potential power of groups (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 1997),using broad-based support to demand the resources and services requiredby their constituents. Representatives over time included parishioners,ministers, and other leaders of African-American communities, localpoliticians, safety officials such as firefighters and police officers,corporate executives, small-business owners, administrators of civic andreligious organizations, and other concerned citizens (Goodstein, 1996b;Lane, 1996). The coalitions had far-reaching effects. One accomplishment wascreating greater ownership of the problem of church burning. This, inturn, expanded church arson to a problem of the total community, ratherthan isolating it in the African-American community (Carter, 1998).Other results of building coalitions were: community-wide denouncementof arson to churches, more equitable allocation of fiscal resources,heightened activism on the part of parishioners directly affected by thefires, and increased ability to attract supporters. By forming coalitions, parishioners attracted the economic supportof local congregations (Lane, 1996), church-related organizations, andvolunteer groups. Unaffected parishes jointly held unity services andearmarked a portion of offerings for rebuilding black churches in theirarea (Smith, 1996). Churches and other organizations across ethnicgroups offered space and money to burned churches until their buildingscould be restored (Goodstein, 1996b, A10). A local bank allocated largerewards for locating and convicting church arsonists (Singletary, 1996). Discussing the variety of strategies (religious, economic,political) used by the coalitions to address church arson may enhancestudents' appreciation of a systemic approach to problem solving.It may also make them more cognizant of the conflicts, contradictions,and other difficulties coalition members face in maintaining theirautonomy. For example, when NationsBank in Charlotte, North Carolina “Charlotte” redirects here. For other uses, see Charlotte (disambiguation).Charlotte is the largest city in the state of North Carolina and the 20th largest city in the United States. ,offered large rewards for locating church arsonists, it did not waiveits traditional loan policies for the churches that had experiencedfires. Instructors can help students recognize potential conflicts in thecoalitions that addressed church arson through a number of courseassignments. For example, instructors could provide their classes with alist of the kinds of organizations that formed coalitions and then haveclass members speculate about potential areas of conflict coalitionmembers might face because of differences in the goals and objectives ofthe groups. The objective of a church to have standing-room-onlycommunity meetings, for instance, may conflict with the safety goals ofa local fire department. Implications for Social Work Education Church burning in African-American communities provides social workeducators a spontaneously occurring event that can be used to teachpractice knowledge and skills. Instructors can demonstrate how thecommunity interventions that evolved naturally had elements of Politicaland Social Action and Coalition Building models, and how they could havebenefited from the professional involvement of social workers. A goal of both Political and Social Action and Coalition Buildingis empowerment of client systems. The recent epidemic of church burningoffered multiple opportunities for community empowerment. With thepassage of time, African-American communities managed to overcome thetrauma associated with church burning. Thereafter, sometimes throughtrial and error, communities mobilized their power and created changesin policies and policymakers. In the ways indicated below, communityorganization professionals may have been able to help communities toobtain these results in a more rapid and systematic manner. Social work intervention may have initially included the micropractice approach of addressing posttraumatic posttraumatic/posttrau��mat��ic/ (post?traw-mat��ik) occurring as a result of or after injury. post��trau��mat��icadj.Following or resulting from injury or trauma. shock on a community-widebasis. The approach is commonly used with persons who have witnessedbombings, plane crashes, and similar catastrophic events. Practitionerscould have subsequently implemented appropriate macro practice roles(Weil, 1996). As investigative researchers, for example, social workersmight have assisted communities in more effectively documenting theincidence and impact of church burning. The findings would have beenuseful in keeping parishioners informed and in developing proposals forchurch rebuilding funds. Social worker organizers might have helpedcommunities to direct pressure tactics such as letter writing campaignsmore efficiently toward target groups. Social workers could haveadvocated for clergy by speaking out in support of clerics whenministers perceived themselves as FBI suspects in the fires to their ownchurches. This level of professional support may have empoweredcommunities by strengthening their belief in their own efficacy (Rubin& Rubin, 1992). The support also operationalizes social work rolesin a manner that can be instructive for students. Discussing ways in which the self-efficacy of residents wasenhanced by addressing church burnings may enable social work studentsto integrate theory and practice. Self-efficacy is supported by bothempowerment theory (Gutierrez et al., 1995) and strengths-orientedapproaches to social work practice (Saleebey, 1992). Examining churcharson provides a current example of how client systems are individually,socially, and politically empowered when their self-efficacy isreinforced and they are helped to see their own strengths. Weil (1996) suggests that to implement the political and socialaction model effectively in grass roots grass rootspl.n. (used with a sing. or pl. verb)1. People or society at a local level rather than at the center of major political activity. Often used with the.2. The groundwork or source of something. settings, organizers mustpossess media and public relations skills. During community crises suchas church burnings, members of the media often seek interviews withresearchers and other professionals who are closely associated with thesubject matter. In anticipation of media contacts, social workers couldhave collaborated with ministers and other community leaders to preparepress releases and interviews that would place the devastation within acultural context. This strategy may have facilitated the healingprocess, minimized the friction that occurred between parishioners andjustice officials, and made communities more attractive to fundraisers. The rural settings in which most church fires occurred are isolatedand thought to make churches more accessible to arsonists. This couldprovide a useful context for teaching effective media strategies tostudents. Maintaining a high profile is one strategy that can beaccomplished by engaging well-known groups or individuals to raiseawareness about an issue. Shortly after President Clinton spoke outagainst church arson, sustained media attention was focused upon theproblem. National concern, in turn, resulted in greater access toresources in local communities including federal grants andfoundation-assisted rebuilding funds (Carter, 1998). Maintaining effective coalitions and implementing political andsocial action in communities that have experienced church arson wouldrequire organizers to address the issue of race. Arson to black churchesis often racially motivated, and addressing controversial issues intense settings can be difficult at best. Community organization classescould offer a safe environment (Garcia & VanSoest, 1997) in which students might openly deliberate about theracial overtones associated with church burning. In the process,students could learn to practice more confidently in racially chargedsettings and become better advocates for social justice. Building and maintaining coalitions requires skills in consensusbuilding. Reviewing the proceedings of the coalitions that developed inresponse to church burning could broaden students' understanding ofthe theory and practice of consensus building, and especially thedesignated roles of mediators and negotiators. Since win-lose strategies(one opponent wins and the other loses) are fairly typical in ourculture and communities are becoming increasingly diverse, social workstudents must learn to implement win-win strategies (both opponents, orall parties involved, win) effectively in situations involving a varietyof personalities and cultural perspectives. Church burning is a devastating issue about which social workersand students must remain concerned. It provides abundant examples ofcommunity intervention and can therefore be an important tool for socialwork educators. Using church burning to teach community intervention canenhance macro practice courses, first of all, because of the currency ofthe issue. Also, it allows instructors to apply professional knowledge,values, and skills to a community event about which some students mayhave personal knowledge and interest. Church burning highlights thecommunity practice roles of researcher, organizer, advocate, negotiatorand mediator. Examining the relevance of these roles to the problem ofchurch burning may result in social workers addressing the associatedissues in a more deliberate manner. REFERENCES Allen-Meares, P. & Burnam, S. (1995). The endangerment ofAfrican American men: An appeal for social work action. Social Work, 40,268-274. Associated Press. (1996, June 10). Pastor preaches forgiveness nearremains of sanctuary: Overflow crowd gathers for first service sincefire. Washington Post, p. A4. Billingsley, A. (1992). Climbing Jacob's ladder. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Simon and Schuster. Booth, W. (1996, June 19). In church fires, a pattern but noconspiracy: Investigators say climate of racism, not hate groups, drivesarsonists. Washington Post, p. A1. Boyd-Franklin, N. (1989). Black families in therapy. New York:Guilford. Carter, C. S. (1997). Using African-centered principles in familypreservation Family preservation was the movement to help keep children at home with their families rather than in foster homes or institutions. This movement was a reaction to the earlier policy of Family Breakup, which pulled children out of unfit homes. services. Families in Society, 78(5), 531-538. Carter, C. S. (1998). Church burning in African Americancommunities: Implications for empowerment practice. Social Work, 44,62-68. Chappell, K. (1996, September). What's behind the burning ofblack churches? Ebony ebony,common name for members of the Ebenaceae, a family of trees and shrubs widely distributed in warmer climates and in the tropics. The principal genus, Diospyros, includes both ebony and persimmon trees. , p. 108-110,112. Council of Social Work Education. (1992). Curriculum policystatement for baccalaureate and master's degree programs in socialwork education. Alexandria, VA: Author. Daly, A., Jennings, J., Beckett, J., & Leashore, B. (1995).Effective coping strategies The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. of African Americans. Social Work, 40,240-248. Devore, W. (1991 . Ethnic-sensitive social work practice (3rd ed.).Columbus, OH: Merrill. Fletcher, M.A. (1996a, May 22). No linkage found in black churcharsons: Justice department lists 28 attacks in 17 months. WashingtonPost, p. A8. Fletcher, M. A. (1996b, June 19). Christian coalition plans tocooperate with black churches to squelch squelch?v. squelched, squelch��ing, squelch��esv.tr.1. To crush by or as if by trampling; squash.2. fires: Several civil rightsleaders Below is a list of civil rights leaders: Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), 16th President of the United States Abernathy, Ralph (1926-1990) Anthony, Susan B. boycott summit as cynical effort. Washington Post, p. A6. From these ashes will come a people determined to be free. (1996,June 23). Washington Post, p. C3. Garcia, B., & Van Soest, D. (1997). Changing perceptions ofdiversity and oppression: MSW (MicroSoft Word) See Microsoft Word. students discuss the effects of a requiredcourse. Journal of Social Work Education, 33, 119-129. Gibbs, L., & Gambrill, E. (1995). Critical thinking for socialworkers. Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks,residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA. Sage. Gilliam, D. (1996, June 15). Scorching scorch?v. scorched, scorch��ing, scorch��esv.tr.1. To burn superficially so as to discolor or damage the texture of. See Synonyms at burn1.2. the soul of a community.Washington Post, p. BI. Goodstein, L. (1996a, June 11). Clinton to visit burned church inS. Carolina. Washington Post, p. Al. Goodstein, L. (1996b, June 21). Millions pledged to rebuild burnedchurches: Oregon blaze added to the list as Congressional Black Caucusholds hearing. Washington Post, p. A10. Greene, M. F. (1996). Trial by fire: Possible arson attackdoesn't dampen integrationists spirit of mostly white Georgiachurch. Washington Post, p. B1. Grosser, C. F., & Mondros, J. (1985). Pluralism andparticipation. The political action approach. In S. H. Taylor & R.W. Roberts (Eds.), Theory and practice of community social work (pp.154-178). New York: Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is an academic press based in New York City and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by James D. Jordan (2004-present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fields of literary and cultural studies, . Gutierrez, L., GlenMaye, L., & DeLois, K. (1995). Theorganizational context of empowerment practice: Implications for socialwork administration. Social Work, 40, 249-258. Harris, J. F. (1996, June 13). They couldn't burn the faithout: Clinton says new church stands as defiance against hate. WashingtonPost, p. A11. Hepworth, D., Rooney, R. H., & Larsen J. A. (1997). Directsocial work: Theory and practice. Pacific Grove Pacific Grove,residential and resort city (1990 pop. 16,117), Monterey co., W central Calif., on a point where Monterey Bay meets the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1889. , CA: Brooks/Cole. Kirst-Ashman, K., & Hull, G. H., Jr. (1997). Generalist gen��er��al��istn.A physician whose practice is not oriented in a specific medical specialty but instead covers a variety of medical problems.generalistPractice with organizations and communities. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. Lane, R. M. (1996, April 13). Acts of faith inspire acts of love:Washington area Quakers organize volunteers to help rebuild 3 BlackAlabama churches. Washington Post, p. D6. Pressley, S. A. (1996, January 23). Church fires rekindle re��kin��dle?tr.v. re��kin��dled, re��kin��dling, re��kin��dles1. To relight (a fire).2. To revive or renew: rekindled an old interest in the sciences. pain;specter of racism rises with the smoke. Washington Post, p. A1. Rivera, F. G., & Edich, J. L. (1992). Community organizing in adiverse society. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Romano, L. (1996, June 14). Fire destroys black church in Oklahomatown: Federal agents seeking cause. Washington Post, p. A3. Rothman, J., (1995). Approaches to community intervention. In J.Rotham, J. L. Erlich, &J. E. Tropman (Eds.), Strategies of communityintervention. Itasca, IL: Peacock. Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (1992). Community organizing anddevelopment (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Saleebey, D. (1992). The strengths perspective in social workpractice. New York. Longman. Singletary, M. (1996, June 12). Putting its money where the firesare: Nationsbank offers up to $500,000 for information on church blazes.Washington Post, p. A18. Smith, L. (1996, July 4). Churches take extra precautions: Securitybecomes concern in wake of fires elsewhere. Washington Post, p. VI. Smith, V. E., & Peyser, M. (1996, June 3). Terror in the night:A rash of church fires confound con��found?tr.v. con��found��ed, con��found��ing, con��founds1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle.2. the feds. Newsweek, p. 34. Taylor, S. H., & Roberts, R. W. (1985). Theory and practice ofcommunity social work. New York: Columbia University Press. Weil, M. (1996). Model development in community practice: Anhistorical perspective. Journal of community practice, 3(3/4), 5-67. Weil, M., & Gamble, D. N. (1995). Community practice models. InR. L. Edwards (Ed.-in-Chief), Encyclopedia of social work (19th ed., pp.577-594). Washington, DC: NASW NASW National Association of Science WritersNASW National Association of Social Workers (Washington, DC)NASW National Association of Social WorkersNASW National Association for Social Work (UK)Press. White, J. E. (1996, June 17). First the flame, then the blame. Asblack churches go on burning, ministers and members get the thirddegree. Time, p. 35. Accepted: 7/99. Address correspondence to: Carolyn S. Carter, Department of HumanDevelopment and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University,main campus at University Park, State College; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855, opened 1859 as Farmers' High School. , 110Henderson Building South, University Park, PA 168026504; e-mail:csc8@psu.edu. CAROLYN S. CARTER is senior lecturer senior lecturern. Chiefly BritishA university teacher, especially one ranking next below a reader. , Department of HumanDevelopment and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University.