Build on the rock: teacher feedback and reading competence.

Build on the rock: teacher feedback and reading competence. Introduction It is expected that children leave primary school able to read,write and speak well enough to meet the demands of secondary school. Therock upon which the high school curriculum is built is the premise thatstudents can read, write and speak with reasonable competence, both totake in printed material and to communicate their own thoughts throughspeech and writing. These skills are needed to understand more about theworld outside school (Eisner 1993), and are important for survival andsuccess as adults in our culture. The relevant responses to a questionnaire completed by Year 7students from a rural area in South-east Queensland, however, revealthat only 66% of those students were confident of their competence inreading. In line with this finding, comparatively few students admittingto lack of confidence agreed that they read outside school or attained`good' marks for their schoolwork, yet not all could see a linkbetween lack of reading competence and low marks in schoolwork anddifficulties with homework. The study revealed little correlationbetween their reading habits and either parental reading and support orrime spent at the computer or television screen. The research suggests the need for both teachers and parents togive regular explicit feedback to children and to stress more forcibly forc��i��ble?adj.1. Effected against resistance through the use of force: The police used forcible restraint in order to subdue the assailant.2. Characterized by force; powerful. the objectives and value of literacy skills. Methodology The purpose of the research was not to investigate reading alone,but to probe the expectations of students in their final year at primaryschool as they approached the transition to high school, but not simplyto replicate rep��li��catev.1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism.n.A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. what other researchers had done. In the belief thatstudents' habits and attitudes, personal experiences andaspirations aspirationsnpl → aspiraciones fpl(= ambition); ambici��n faspirationsnpl (= hopes, ambition) → aspirations fplmight have a bearing on their expectations about highschool, the questionnaire was devised to include statements and bothclosed and open questions which, it was hoped, would reveal such links.Ample room was available for comments, but only a handful took fulladvantage of the opportunity. As part of wider research into thetransition, 185 students from 13 Year 7 classes in 11 schools completedthe questionnaire during November 1998. Two were one-teacher schools,one had two teachers, one four, and the others at least one class atevery year level. Two were church schools, one of which is part of aP-12 college. Four day-girls from the grammar school in a nearby city,easily accessible from outlying out��ly��ing?adj.Relatively distant or remote from a center or middle: outlying regions.outlyingAdjectivefar away from the main areaAdj. 1. areas, also completed the questionnaire. This paper concerns only parts of the questionnaire that directlyor indirectly involve reading: how students see themselves as readers,how they manage schoolwork and homework, how the teacher interacts withthem, whether or not they believe the ability to read easily affects theway they cope academically, their own and their parents' readinghabits, the amount of time spent on video and computer games andtelevision, and their perceptions of parental support. Results It was necessary, first, to find those who did not see themselvesas `good' readers. The term `good' was not defined, nor werestudents asked to define it. It was expected that in the context of thisquestionnaire, a broad, `common-sense' understanding of the termwas sufficient. Of the total cohort cohort/co��hort/ (ko��hort)1. in epidemiology, a group of individuals sharing a common characteristic and observed over time in the group.2. , over one-third could not agree that they weregood readers. In the belief that reading habits would reflect reading ability,students were also asked about the frequency of their reading outsideschool. The percentage of students in each category who often readdecreases as their images of themselves as readers diminish, while thepercentage of those who seldom read increases. It is reasonable to assume that the 17 students who marked `Notsure' and claimed to read once or twice a week or more often aremore competent, but either unsure of what constitutes good reading ormindful mind��ful?adj.Attentive; heedful: always mindful of family responsibilities.See Synonyms at careful.mind of their patchy PATCHY - A Fortran code management program written at CERN. performance and/or comprehension, even generallymodest in disposition and lacking self-confidence. The 22 who statedthey seldom read could probably be classed as poorer readers. It was necessary, also, to ascertain whether or not perceived lackof reading competence equated with perceived lack of competence inschoolwork generally. The proportion of competent readers claiming to get good marksexceeds that of their reading peers claiming not to get good marks. Inthe case of less competent readers the reverse occurs. It isacknowledged that the `common-sense' meaning of the term`good' may not have been clear to some of the respondents. Again, the researcher sought information on student perceptions ofwhether difficulties in coping with schoolwork correlate withdifficulties in reading. From their personal experience and/or observations, 64.3% of allrespondents perceive a link between difficulty in reading and difficultyin coping with schoolwork. Of the 63 respondents who were not confidentreaders 69.8% gave their opinion that lack of reading competence makesschoolwork harder. The researcher presumed that if students see a link betweendifficulty in reading and difficulty in coping with schoolwork, theywould probably also see a link between reading problems and difficultyin coping with homework. Difficulties with schoolwork carry over into the homework area, ashalf the non-readers attested at��test?v. at��test��ed, at��test��ing, at��testsv.tr.1. To affirm to be correct, true, or genuine: The date of the painting was attested by the appraiser.2. , compared to 42.1% of those not sure oftheir reading status. On the other hand, of those claiming to benon-readers and those unsure of their ability, 40.2% and 44.7%,respectively, saw no link. A total of 11.1% of those less confidentreaders were not sure of the effects on homework due to lack of readingcompetence. If this is so, there may be students who avoid doing the sethomework. Q. 12. I only do my homework because I get into trouble if Idon't. Of the total cohort, 45.4% agreed that the avoidance of trouble istheir motivation for doing homework: 42.6% of better readers, comparedto 50% of the less able or unconfident. Why do so many students see such little value in homework? The proportion of students who profess pro��fess?v. pro��fessed, pro��fess��ing, pro��fess��esv.tr.1. To affirm openly; declare or claim: "a physics major that they do not know whatthe teacher thinks rises with lack of confidence in reading ability. Ofthe total cohort 39.5% of students agree that they do not know what theteacher is thinking about their work, 33.5% are not sure whether theyknow or not (probably recalling specific instances), and 27% disagreewith Verb 1. disagree with - not be very easily digestible; "Spicy food disagrees with some people"hurt - give trouble or pain to; "This exercise will hurt your back" the statement, satisfied that they do know. There may be other instances where students do not pick up theteacher's thoughts. As confidence in reading declines, so also does agreement that theteacher always makes things clear. Of the total cohort 23.8% agree withthe statement, 21.6% are not sure (perhaps recalling specificinstances), and 54.6% disagree that the teacher makes things clear. It could be assumed also, that family and home factors andactivities might play a part in student responses to the schoolsituation. Analysis of results revealed no apparent pattern in family orgender with reference to reading ability. Even so, Ken Rowe Kenneth Darrell (Ken) Rowe (born December 31, 1933 in Ferndale, Michigan) is a former middle-relief pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1963) and Baltimore Orioles (1964-65). He batted and threw right handed. , ofMelbourne University's Faculty of Education, quoted by Horin(1996), claims that home reading activities are a crucial factor inliteracy development. It was thought, therefore, that the questionnairemight reveal links between poor reading and what happens at home:parental reading and/or time spent by the student on reading andtelevision, video and computer games. Almost all students who respondedto the questionnaire indicated that they see their parents readregularly, usually every day. Only one student (from a farming area), ofthe few who stated that they never read, stated that he never sees hisparents read. Four students stated that they see their parents read onlyonce or twice a month. Although Wells (1980, cited in College of StScholastica, 1999) believes that parental reading habits will usually bemodelled by their children, that was not so in this study. Of those 122students who see themselves as good readers, 14 professed pro��fess?v. pro��fessed, pro��fess��ing, pro��fess��esv.tr.1. To affirm openly; declare or claim: "a physics major to read onlyonce or twice a month and six hardly ever, their leisure time perhapstaken up in the screen-watching which was not an alternative until thelast few years. Time spent watching television is also regarded as one of thepredictors of reading performance (Neumann & Prowda 1982). Fivenon-reading students, including the boy who stated that he never readsand never sees his parents read, indicated that they spend in excess offive hours a day in front of a screen. The other non-readers claimedthat they spend varying amounts of time in these pursuits, some verylittle, while many of their more confident peers also spend longperiods, even more than five hours a day, in such activities. In fact,only one of all the respondents professed not to spend any time in theseactivities. Discussion Reading competence and reading confidence are vital for success atsecondary school and beyond. Here, reading and the influences on studentattitudes towards literacy are discussed. Assessment and feedback arepart of instruction, and influence students' perceptions of theirability. Home background also plays a part. Reading Most children appear to master decoding de��code?tr.v. de��cod��ed, de��cod��ing, de��codes1. To convert from code into plain text.2. To convert from a scrambled electronic signal into an interpretable one.3. in the early primary years(Hinds Hinds may refer to:People with the surname Hinds: Hinds (surname) In places: Hinds, New Zealand, a small town Hinds County, Mississippi, a US county In business: F. 1999), after specific and incidental Contingent upon or pertaining to something that is more important; that which is necessary, appertaining to, or depending upon another known as the principal.Under Workers' Compensation statutes, a risk is deemed incidental to employment when it is related to whatever a teaching of skills by theteacher, occasional reading to the teacher at other times, and regularreading to an aide or volunteer at school and a parent a home.Children's desire to read at least partially reflects theirperception of their competence in reading (Beach 1994, cited in Collegeof St Scholastica 1999). Students to whom the art of reading comeseasily usually read often, enjoying the story as it unfolds or gatheringinformation from an expository text. They then keep reading, which makesthem even more facile (language) Facile - A concurrent extension of ML from ECRC.http://ecrc.de/facile/facile_home.html.["Facile: A Symmetric Integration of Concurrent and Functional Programming", A. Giacalone et al, Intl J Parallel Prog 18(2):121-160, Apr 1989]. . Lack of competence, however, blocks access to thestory line or the information being sought. Without pleasure orsatisfaction from reading, young readers will read little or nothing andso lose their skills. In this study, 63 students were in that position,not able to agree that they were good readers (see Table 1). Over halfof them seldom or never read (Table 2). As students progress through the grades there is a tendency toreduce the time spent in class or group reading instruction, with lessemphasis on reading as a separate subject. Instead, individual readingto aides and volunteers continues, with varying degrees of usefulness.In upper primary years the move from skills- and narrative-basedapproaches to reading instruction gradually changes to an approach wherecontent knowledge plays a greater role. Peters (1990) points out theimportance of balanced integration of process and content in knowledgeacquisition, helping students move beyond the surface to deeper levelsof understanding and revealing how content influences presentation anddemands variety in reading strategies. Subject teachers at high schoolwill use this approach as they expose students to a wider range of textsdiffering in purpose, style and subtlety sub��tle��ty?n. pl. sub��tle��ties1. The quality or state of being subtle.2. Something subtle, especially a nicety of thought or a fine distinction. (Curriculum Corporation 1994). Whether its purpose is to teach reading strategies or expandcontent knowledge, reading instruction is a three-way process, involvingreader and text, plus context, which includes the teacher and his or herpurpose. Not only does the teacher provide general material thatstraddles, illustrates and integrates content and process, reading andsubject areas, but he or she also notes weaknesses or misunderstandingsfor follow-up. This can be done only through direct interaction with thestudent. Without guidance and feedback, students, even those who readwell, will not come to see the reading act as growth in skills increating a schema, finding meaning, thinking and reasoning. Ifpurposeful pur��pose��ful?adj.1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician.2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. reading lessons, with orientation, reading and follow-up, arenot given regularly, children may read, but miss the real skills ofgathering literal and inferential in��fer��en��tial?adj.1. Of, relating to, or involving inference.2. Derived or capable of being derived by inference.in meaning from their reading and beingable to relate what they read to their own lives and what they alreadyknow. Remembering is built on such reflection. It is important forteachers to understand student attitudes to both reading generally andcurrent reading in particular, which are a potent factor in thedevelopment of reading skills. Even more important, however, Vaughan andEstes (1986) remind us, is the need for teachers to understand thatstudent attitudes reflect their judgement of, and respect for, theteacher's expectations, helpfulness and enthusiasm for reading andits place as one of the skills of literacy. Assessment and feedback If students derive their attitudes from their perceptions ofteacher attitudes, it behooves teachers to ensure that their input ispositive, and that they do provide needed input. In the primary classroom the practice of having students engaged indifferent activities as individuals or in groups is expected and so doesnot excite particular attention. Reid et al. (1989) maintain that theintimacy of small groups promotes greater involvement, interaction andlanguage growth. The teacher is constantly on the move, ready to giveassistance, listening and questioning, making comments or suggestions inan effort to match the demands of a task with student ability andfurther learning appropriate to that level. Because there are alwaysother individuals or groups waiting for the teacher's attention,however, interaction may be curtailed, perhaps too soon. The teacher's position has been likened to that of coach, withresponsibility for individual as well as team development. Wiggins(1993) makes the point that students must also be given the criteria bywhich classroom performance is judged, just as expectations for athletesand musicians are made clear to them. Only then will students know whatthey are aiming for. Aspirations create and sustain enthusiasm,improvement and empowerment. MacIver et al. (1995) acknowledge thedesirability of having children with learning difficulties strive forthe same exit as their peers, but believe it would be wiser tocollaborate with individual students to set specific realisable, butchallenging goals, then work with them to fulfil those goals, givingpositive reinforcement positive reinforcement,n a technique used to encourage a desirable behavior. Also calledpositive feedback, in which the patient or subject receives encouraging and favorable communication from another person. without exaggerating ex��ag��ger��ate?v. ex��ag��ger��at��ed, ex��ag��ger��at��ing, ex��ag��ger��atesv.tr.1. To represent as greater than is actually the case; overstate: the quality of theirperformance (Venezsky 1996). The questions the teacher asks, Wixson (1983) stresses, influencewhat children learn. What the teacher does to explain, demonstrate andencourage practice in real-life or similar situations is important inthe transfer of skills, but it is important too, to excite and enthuse en��thuse?v. en��thused, en��thus��ing, en��thus��es Usage Problemv.tr.To cause to become enthusiastic.v.intr. students in a positive environment based on the value the teacher putson reading. Vaughan and Estes (1986) also believe that the enthusiasticteacher who communicates attention to detail, realistic expectations ofstudents and fairness to them, and the valuing of reading in bothlearning and relaxation, has the power to affect student attitudestowards reading. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Kohl (1976), if teachers do not believestudents can learn, students will know it, and come to feel the sameway. Those who do poorly are shielded, and unobtrusive efforts made, notonly to build up their skills, but also to stress outside-class thingsthey do well and so bolster their self-esteem and self-confidence.Cormack (1992) points out, however, that differential treatment givessuch students the opposite, negative, message. In spite of goodintentions, in the rush of classroom life the teacher may not provideadequate individually designed support for students with difficulties. Often, too, students do not realise the value of mistakes asopportunities to grow, but see them as a sign of failure. Although it isdesirable that all students experience success (Wang 1992), only whenthey are challenged through failure to reflect on, deal with and come toa resolution of the problem will they engage in authentic learning. Toobviate the possibility of error, requirements may be watered down toomuch, to suit an individual or a group, when there would be greatervalue in a task which needs more hard thinking and the development offurther skills, albeit with more intervention, both planned andspontaneous, from the teacher (Hornsby & Sukarna 1986). In an effortto interact with all students, the teacher may give the neededinstruction to individuals, group or class, but omit o��mit?tr.v. o��mit��ted, o��mit��ting, o��mits1. To fail to include or mention; leave out: omit a word.2. a. To pass over; neglect.b. feedback on whathas already been done. According to Table 6, slightly less than half of the more ablereaders, and none of the remainder of the total cohort, claim to beaware of what the teacher thinks about their work. On the other hand,the proportion of those who agree that they do not know what the teacherthinks rises steeply as professed incompetence in��com��pe��tenceor in��com��pe��ten��cyn.1. The quality of being incompetent or incapable of performing a function, as the failure of the cardiac valves to close properly.2. in reading rises. Thosewho are not sure about their reading ponder Ponder - A non-strict polymorphic, functional language by Jon Fairbairn <jf@cl.cam.ac.uk>.Ponder's type system is unusual. It is more powerful than the Hindley-Milner type system used by ML and Miranda and extended by Haskell. about teacher feedback also,nearly one half concluding that they are not sure of that either. If these figures are linked with those in Table 3, which showsstudents who claim to get good marks for their work, it can be seen thatover 60% of able readers agree that they do so. This suggests, then,that some of those students do not know what aspects of their work ledto the good marks. Of the remaining respondents, 30.2% claim to get goodmarks for their schoolwork, yet they do not know what the teacher isthinking, and so do not know the reason for those good marks. In myexperience, students are often more interested in the marks they receivefor the tangible product than in what they learn from the experience.They are often inclined, also, not to look beyond the appearance of theproduct as an indicator of work that deserves good marks. Although this is linked with feedback, it may also be linked withthe degree to which students understand what the teacher is saying.Table 7 shows that this decreases as competence in reading decreases.The situation is a spiral: the ability to read broadens both knowledgeand thinking, so that shades of Noun 1. shades of - something that reminds you of someone or something; "aren't there shades of 1948 here?"reminder - an experience that causes you to remember something meaning in the teacher's utterancesare picked up, to add to knowledge and to make further connections,which in their turn enhance both the reading process and what isgathered from it, and so on. The process is similar in the case of lessable readers: through lack of competence in reading and the consequentdisinclination dis��in��cli��na��tion?n.A lack of inclination; a mild aversion or reluctance.Noun 1. disinclination - that toward which you are inclined to feel dislike; "his disinclination for modesty is well known" to engage in the activity a student's comprehensionof the world is limited, so that not all the teacher says is understood,and opportunities are lost for further cognition cognitionAct or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. , and so on. Moyle(1968) stresses that poor reading achievement limits success in otherareas of the curriculum, leads to avoidance of reading and furtherdecline in skills, and even creates negative social attitudes. Figuresin Table 4 show that over 64% of all respondents in the study definitelyagree that lack of reading makes schoolwork harder. There are however,four of the 24 poorer readers, who definitely disagree. Teachers are always in a bind as to where it is best to spendtime--in individual or small group interaction. Who will benefit more?Time spent with more able readers appears to be more profitable, whereasspecial attention paid to less able readers may not only make a certainpoint clear but also inspire them to greater exertions. Wang (1992)points out that the pattern of interaction in the latter case has astrong influence on interest and motivation, not just busy-ness. Assessment is part of the curriculum, providing information on boththe quality of instruction and student progress. It is not enough,however, no matter how laudable laud��a��bleadj.Healthy; favorable. , for teachers to gather information oneach student's development for the purposes of building on existingskills and giving feedback to parents. Students need an evaluation ofpast performance, not only concentration on future requirements. Theproblem of time constraints can be lessened if students are trained toself-evaluate their reading. In the early '70s, Holdaway (1972) wasa pioneer in the field of promoting independence in reading. Hesuspected that students work with their classmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... as they assimilate as��sim��i��latev.1. To consume and incorporate nutrients into the body after digestion.2. To transform food into living tissue by the process of anabolism. and integrate ideas, and receive training in reading and responding onto tape, either spontaneously or through directed activities, or byjournalling, writing, drama, music or art. The teacher keeps in touchwith each student, but in regular interviews can induce students toreflect further on their growing attainments as well as on what acertain reading event has meant to them. They thus accept a portion ofthe responsibility for their own learning, practice and development,which, after ail, a coach expects of players. Such training, withteacher feedback, helps give students realistic perceptions of theirskills and abilities. This is certainly done in many classrooms. How todo it in the most appropriate manner for an individual, however, is notalways easy to decide. For instance, the student in the study with themost negative attitude to school has no doubt about what he believieshis teacher thinks of his work: `She says it is horrible, disgusting(sic Latin, In such manner; so; thus.A misspelled or incorrect word in a quotation followed by "[sic]" indicates that the error appeared in the original source. )'. Is this part of the cause or part of the result of hisnegativity? Has the perceived bluntness of her feedback brought anyimprovement, made him determined to show her what he can do, ordestroyed motivation completely? Perceptions of ability Over one-third of students stated that they are not good readers orare not sure of their ability and do not read often. This is well overthe rough estimate of one-quarter, given by Year 8 teachers interviewedas part of the research, of students who enter high school with skillsinadequate to cope with its demands. Year 7 teachers interviewed fromlarger schools quote the same approximate figure in referring tostudents who require modifications in the work presented to them and/orexpected of them. They claim that the problems did not arise in Year 7:students who are not secure in their knowledge, skills and understandingas they leave primary school were struggling long before they enteredtheir final primary year. Whatever the cause of their insecurity InsecurityInseparability (See FRIENDSHIP.)Insolence (See ARROGANCE.)Hamletintrospective, vacillating Prince of Denmark. [Br. Lit.: Hamlet]Linuscartoon character who is lost without his security blanket. , it isdisturbing to find such a substantial number who do not have thepersonal academic resources to withstand the storms and shocks of Year 8where so much depends on rock-solid reading. The questionnaire was designed to help students reflect on theirprimary school experience as well as on their expectations regardinghigh school. It was reasonable to suppose that their perceptions oftheir ability as readers and students would form the basis for theirresponses. The questionnaire did not define the word good, pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. toreading and marks awarded to schoolwork, but expected that studentswould have a commonality of understanding that it inferred a certaindegree of facility in word recognition and understanding of content,satisfaction from teachers and parents, and no negative repercussions repercussionsnpl → r��percussions fplrepercussionsnpl → Auswirkungen plateither school or home. In probing feelings about marks for schoolwork(Q. 2, Table 3), the word always may have been a stumbling block stum��bling blockn.An obstacle or impediment.stumbling blockNounany obstacle that prevents something from taking place or progressingNoun 1. tostudents doing their best to answer honestly. Those whose response wasNot sure may indeed have been more sensitive respondents, who realisedthat they do not have in equal measure the various skills required fordifferent types of schoolwork, including reading. Even so, allowing fordifferences in their understanding of the concept of good marks,students' perceptions of their own ability, their aspirations, thevalue of the subject to them, and the classroom environment will allplay a part in the effort they make to do well, especially withassessment in mind. In any case, with 63 negative responses to Q. 5, I am a goodreader, it can be presumed from Table 1 that 122, 66% of the totalcohort, see themselves as competent readers. Of that number, almost 40%doubt that their marks for work are always good, compared to 60.7% whoclaim good marks, 26% and 40% of the total cohort, respectively. Amongthe less able readers, only 30.2% claim to get good marks, compared toalmost 70% who do not do so, 10.3% and 23.7% of the total cohort,respectively. These figures come from Table 3. If students have not been trained to evaluate their own performancein reading, they may be unaware of what constitutes good reading. Theymay not have opportunities to compare their own fluency flu��ent?adj.1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.b. andcomprehension with those of others. Reading aloud in group work isprobably incidental, but for a specific purpose, and perhaps eager,facile readers simply take over. Unless students hear other studentsread and comment during discussion they may not realise thepossibilities that open out when a passage is considered. Perhaps, too,the pressures of time allow fewer opportunities for the teacher to readto the class, an activity which is often seen as unimportant un��im��por��tant?adj.Not important; petty.unim��portance n. . Modellingof expressive reading, making personal connections, which illuminate il��lu��mi��nate?v. il��lu��mi��nat��ed, il��lu��mi��nat��ing, il��lu��mi��natesv.tr.1. To provide or brighten with light.2. To decorate or hang with lights.3. theauthor's meaning and the successful location of information, willemphasise to students the value of literacy. With the trend towards student-centred education, as Brady andKennedy (1998) suggest, then the necessity for student co-operation,self-assessment and personal responsibility will be met, not by subjector teacher needs, but from consideration of student needs. This meansthat students must receive early feedback from the teacher, which theycan comprehend and act upon. Home background Parents are in a unique position to offer feedback andencouragement. Cairney and Munsie (1995) emphasise the relationshipbetween school success and factors associated with home and family whichaccount, at least to a large extent, for differences in literacyperformance. Findings in this study were inconclusive INCONCLUSIVE. What does not put an end to a thing. Inconclusive presumptions are those which may be overcome by opposing proof; for example, the law presumes that he who possesses personal property is the owner of it, but evidence is allowed to contradict this presumption, and show who is , showing nopatterns of home background or activity which might suggest a link withpoor reading skills. On the contrary, almost all students respondedpositively to Q. 15 and Q. 16, My parents think it is important for meto do well at school and My parents are happy if I'm doing my best,respectively. They believe their parents value education and at leastgive verbal, if not practical, support. Only the boy mentioned on page15 was completely negative, strongly disagreeing that his parents weresupportive or that they ever read. His perceptions of his parents andthat of his teacher as lacking interest in his progress were evident inhis responses about his hatred of all schoolwork in primary school andhis expectations that it would be the same at secondary school. Positionin family did not seem to have any relevance to the outcomes of thisstudy. Table 8 shows that, of the less able readers, only two, bothboys, were only children; 5 boys and 1 girl were the youngest, the samenumbers were the eldest, and 7 boys and 3 girls middle children. It iscommon to find more boys than girls experiencing reading difficulties. It was not possible to perceive any correlation between time spentin screen-watching and reading/academic ability. There are good readerswho claim good marks for schoolwork who say they spend over five hoursper day in front of the television or computer screen, while there areless able readers who are little involved in such activities. This doesnot agree with Ashley's (1998) contention that an increase intelevision watching is linked with a decline in literacy. Nor does interest in the screen seem to be related to astudent's attitude towards homework, which depends on pastdifficulties and successes, as well as on the purpose and importanceattached to it perceived in the statements and actions of parents andteachers. Over 45% of the total cohort gives their reason for doinghomework as their desire to keep out of trouble. This includes over halfof the weaker readers. Murphy and Murphy (1990) believe that homeworkcreates more anxiety for high school students than any other aspect ofschool life, seldom free of the pressures that come from having to docertain activities by a certain date. On the other hand, Coulter andMcHale (1980) maintain that careful preparation by the teacher can makehomework, perhaps not a pleasure, but at least a useful activity whichall students can manage and appreciate. As one respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. commented,more students would do their homework willingly if they derivedsatisfaction and enjoyment from it. Reifer et al. (1989) believe thatthe purpose of homework is to develop independence, confidence and goodwork habits as well as to practice and reinforce what has already beenlearned or to show that it has not been learned. Do students understandthis? Together, teachers and parents need to decide on a homework policy.According to Cairney and Munsie (1995), a reciprocal relationshipbetween home and school not only helps children to cope more effectivelywith school, but also breaks down barriers between parents and teachersas they come to a better understanding, and ultimately leads to progressin literacy development. Parents of young children are usually keen to explore the potentialof home reading, which includes both reading to children and listeningto them read. This is an opportunity to help children delight in booksand reading, both now and in the future. A scheduled amount of readingfrom a reading book may still be set to be read to someone at home, forthe purpose of providing practice and developing the reading ethic. Goodreaders, eager for the story or the information, will read regularly oftheir own accord. In the case of poor readers, however, their slownesscauses them to lose the thread of the material, and they derive neitherpleasure nor benefit from the reading activity. The time is misery forboth child and listener, and, in the long run, destroys the desire toread. The gap widens between ardent (Ardent Software, Inc., Westboro, MA) A database vendor formed in 1998 as the merger of VMARK Software, Unidata and O2 Technology. Its products included the UniVerse and UniData databases and DataStage data warehouse utility. readers and those who read at onlyfunctional level and only when it is required of them. Frustrations felt day after day by parent and child may make homereading and homework things to be dreaded dread?v. dread��ed, dread��ing, dreadsv.tr.1. To be in terror of.2. To anticipate with alarm, distaste, or reluctance: dreaded the long drive home. . Certainly, many parents mayspend more time than can reasonably be expected in working with studentswho have reading and/or other academic difficulties to ensure that thework is done correctly--and this after a day where work is made moredifficult for those very reasons. Parental motives for supporting theirchildren can be understood, but may not ultimately be in the bestinterests of the children. Cairney and Munsie (1995) claim, however, notall parents feel competent enough to deal with their children'shomework, and there are many who do not feel secure enough in the schoolsetting to complain. Waterland (1988) points out the advantages of home support: time,individual attention, fewer interruptions, less pressure and lovingconcern to complement the expertise, variety of materials andprogression in reading skills which the school offers. Tinker andMcCullough (1975) point out that parents provide the best model.Teachers, therefore, must work hard to convince even diffident,unwilling parents of the value of their support and occasional inputinto homework, as part of the parent-teacher partnership (Gianetti &Sagarese 1998). Yet their expectations of parents must be realistic. Inanother section of the questionnaire, one boy agreed with Q. 14, Myparents don't want to be bothered with my homework, but went on toexplain that his parents both work. Even a few students from non-stateschools stated that their parents don't want to be bothered. Oneboy from a rural area quoted his parents: `Homework is doing the dishesand cleaning up.' Only one able reader admitted to having both homework problems andparents who do not help, but simply urge him to work harder. Table 5shows that half the non-readers and 42.1% of the tentative readers whoresponded admitted to homework difficulties related to reading problems,a total of 28 students who do not claim to read well. On the other hand,7 students were not sure that poor reading makes homework harder, and 27disagreed. The homework for some in the last group may be tailored totheir needs, giving them practice in work they have already grasped. Inother cases, however, strong parental input may make a difference tostudent attitude and ability to cope with the work set. Students who aremore independent may not appreciate that input. As one girl said, `Ifonly ...'. Comments from students in one classroom reveal thedisparity dis��par��i��ty?n. pl. dis��par��i��ties1. The condition or fact of being unequal, as in age, rank, or degree; difference: "narrow the economic disparities among regions and industries"of views, which affects not only homework, but every facet facet/fac��et/ (fas��it) a small plane surface on a hard body, as on a bone. fac��etn.1. A small smooth area on a bone or other firm structure.2. ofclassroom life. Able readers comment that there is not enough homework,that it is seldom set, that it is too easy, and boring, while a readerless sure of her ability wishes the teacher would explain it further,and to yet another it is a challenge. Every student in that classroomdoes the homework, knowing he or she will get into trouble if it is notdone. Such an admirably ad��mi��ra��ble?adj.Deserving admiration.admi��ra��ble��ness n.ad consistent approach from the teacher isimportant feedback in itself. Conclusion Weak readers entering high school are likely to have a negativeattitude towards reading, even to school, developed over long experienceof reading difficulties. The high school has an obligation to cater forspecial needs, but the curriculum depends on basic literacy. It canbuild on and extend a student's secure foundation, but is notdesigned for readers who need differentiated teaching. Frater Fra´tern. 1. (Eccl.) A monk; also, a frater house.Frater housean apartament in a convent used as an eating room; a refectory; - called also a fratery ltname>. (1998)points out that all subject teachers need linguistically informedskills, to do more than identify students with problems; in theirday-to-day teaching they need to systematically identify the errors andmisunderstandings that cause those problems. They must then collaboratewith resource teachers regarding content, as students are withdrawn forsupport to overcome specific identified difficulties. Using relevantmaterial ensures that their access to subject teaching will not becompromised. On the student's return to the classroom the teacherwill be active in both supporting and monitoring the student'sreading and progress. The chorus says You're safe forevermore for��ev��er��more?adv.Forever.Adv. 1. forevermore - at any future time; in the future; "lead a blameless life evermore"evermore if you build on therock. As the rock on which high school learning and authentic academicprogress are built, reading competence is an indicator of success atschool, as well as cognitive and social development. These affect thecommunication process, which contributes to better decision-making andself-development to create a literate society. According to their responses, it seems that many Year 7 studentsare floundering, unsure of their competence in schoolwork, includingreading. Nor do they see any connection between reading competence andsuccess in other aspects of school life. Most parents provideappropriate reading models and are positive in their support, verballyat least. Student ability to read, and success in school, according tothis study, do not seem to be related to amount of time spent on TV andcomputer games. If lack of surety An individual who undertakes an obligation to pay a sum of money or to perform some duty or promise for another in the event that person fails to act. suretyn. about reading competence cannot beattributed to the home, factors in the classroom may be contributing tothe situation. As students progress through the school, it seems that teacherstake less part in the teaching of reading. The input of aides,volunteers and parents is valued, and so is independent reading. It isthe teacher, however, who needs to have greater knowledge of the readingprocess and ability to impart its complexity of skills, who can linkother classroom learning with a passage, who can diagnose diagnose/di��ag��nose/ (di��ag-nos) to identify or recognize a disease. di��ag��nosev.1. To distinguish or identify a disease by diagnosis.2. miscues anddevise ways to correct misunderstandings. The teacher needs not only toinstruct in��struct?v. in��struct��ed, in��struct��ing, in��structsv.tr.1. To provide with knowledge, especially in a methodical way. See Synonyms at teach.2. To give orders to; direct.v. and support students during a lesson, but also to providefeedback on the strengths of past performance and areas for improvement,and to let students know the goals of a unit of work. Students then havesomething for which to strive. With feedback, careful guidance and goalsetting, modelling and evidence of the valuing of literacy by teachers,students can realistically assess their own literacy progress and makeuseful decisions about their academic future.Q. 5. I am a good reader.Table 1. Negative responses to the statement, I am a good reader. Total number of respondents N = 185 B G Total %Disagree/strongly disagree 17 7 24 13Not sure 19 20 39 21.1Total 36 27 63 34Q. 17. How often do you read for your own pleasure or informationoutside school?Table 2. Frequency of personal reading episodes. Students who claim Students not sure of to be good readers their reading status N = 122 N = 39Read Read Read Never/ Read Read Read Never/every once/ once/ hardly every once/ once/ hardly day twice a twice a ever day twice a twice a ever week month read week month read 60 42 14 6 6 11 10 12 83.6% 16.4% 43.6% 56.4% Students who claim not to be good readers N = 24Read Read Read Never/every once/ once/ hardly day twice a twice a ever week month read 1 9 3 11 41.7% 58.3%Q. 2. I always get good marks for my work.Table 3. Students who claim to get good marks for their work. Students who responded Students who responded positively to Q.5. I am negatively to Q.5. I am a good reader. a good reader. N = 122 N = 63 Students Students who Students Students who who claim do not claim who claim do not claim to get good to get good to get good to get good marks in marks in marks in marks in their work their work their work their work 78 44 19 44% 60.7 39.3 30.2 69.8% of total cohort 40 26 10.3 23.7Q. 6. If you can't read easily schoolwork is harder.Table 4. Students' perceptions of a link between difficultyin reading and difficulty in coping with school work. Strongly Agree/Agree Not Sure Poor Readers Able Poor Readers Ablereaders not sure readers readers not sure readers of status of status 19 25 75 1 5 26 119 32 34 64.3% 17.3%Disagree/Strongly Disagree Poor Readers Ablereaders not sure readers of status 4 9 21 18.4%Q. 13. I have problems reading, and so homework is difficult.Table 5. Responses from poorer readers regarding a link betweenreading ability and difficulty in coping with homework. Non-readers Students not sure of reading status N = 24 N = 39Strongly Not Sure Disagree/ Strongly Not Sure Disagree/ Agree/ Strongly Agree/ Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Disagree 12 2 10 16 5 17 1 gave no response 50% 9.8% 40.2% 42.1% 13.2% 44.7%Q. 8. I don't know what my teacher thinks about my work.Table 6. Responses from students regarding teacher feedback. Students who claim Students not sure of to be good readers their reading status N = 122 N = 39Strongly Not Disagree/ Strongly Not Disagree/ agree/ sure strongly agree/ sure strongly agree disagree agree disagree 35 37 50 20 19 0 28.6% 29.5% 41.9% 51.2% 48.8% 0 Students who claim not to be good readers N = 24Strongly Not Disagree/ agree/ sure strongly agree disagree 18 6 0 75% 25% 0Q. 7. My teacher does not make things clear to me.Table 7. Responses from students regarding clarityof the teacher's explanations. Students who claim Students not sure of to be good readers their reading status N = 122 N = 39Strongly Not Disagree/ Strongly Not Disagree/ agree/ sure strongly agree/ sure strongly agree disagree agree disagree 24 14 84 11 12 16 19.6% 11.5% 68.9% 28.2% 30.8% 41% Students who claim not to be good readers N = 24Strongly Not Disagree/ agree/ sure strongly agree disagree 9 14 1 37.5% 58.3% 4.2%Table 8. Position in family, and gender of self-perceived poor readers.Students who claim not to be good readers (N = 24) Only children Youngest Eldest Middle childrenBoys 2 5 5 7Girls 0 1 1 3Total 2 6 6 10% 8.2% 25% 25% 41.8% Note: This article is part of a larger study being completed for adoctorate in education at Central Queensland University Central Queensland University is an Australian public university based in Queensland. Its main campus in North Rockhampton Queensland, but it has operations throught Asia-Pacific. . The authoracknowledges constructive comments in preliminary drafts by Dr KenPurnell and Peter Hallinan. References Ashley, C. 1998, More Reading, Less TV: Elementary School elementary school:see school. ReadingProgram, TVFA (On-line). http://www.tvfa.org/mrltv.htm/(Accessed 25October 1999). Brady, L. & Kennedy, K. 1998, Curriculum Construction,Prentice-Hall, Sydney. Cairney, T.H. & Munsie, L. 1995, `Parent participation inliteracy learning', The Reading Teacher, vol. 48, no. 5, pp.392-403. College of St Scholastica 1999, Increasing Literacy Based ReadingPractice at Home and School: Diabolo Di`ab´o`lon. 1. An old game or sport (revived under this name) consisting in whirling on a string, fastened to two sticks, a small somewhat spool-shaped object (called the diaboloElementary School (Dept of DefenceSchool in Panama), www.css.edu/depts/edu/MEDLRschPapers/IncreasingLit.htm (Accessed 25 October 1999). Cormack, E 1992, `School-related barriers to success in reading andwriting', Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, vol. 15, no.3, pp. 175-186. Coulter, F. & McHale, S. 1980, Secondary School Homework,Education Dept of Western Australia Western Australia,state (1991 pop. 1,409,965), 975,920 sq mi (2,527,633 sq km), Australia, comprising the entire western part of the continent. It is bounded on the N, W, and S by the Indian Ocean. Perth is the capital. , Perth. Curriculum Corporation 1994, English: A Curriculum Profile forAustralian Schools, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton, Vic. Eisner, E. 1993, `Reshaping assessment in education: Some criteriain search of practice', Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 25, no.3, pp. 219-233. Frater, G. 1998, `Assessing literacy and special needs in secondaryschools: A case for a new paradigm', in Assessing Reading 2:Changing Practice in Classrooms, eds M. Cole & R. Jenkins,Routledge, London. Gianetti, C.C. & Sagarese, M.M. 1998, `Turning parents fromcritics to allies', Educational Leadership, vol. 55, no. 8, pp.40-42. Hinds, D. 1999, `Turning over a new leaf', Education Review,July/August, p. 23. Holdaway, D. 1972, Independence in Reading on Individualised Adj. 1. individualised - made for or directed or adjusted to a particular individual; "personalized luggage"; "personalized advice"individualized, personalised, personalized Procedures, Ashton Company, Brookvale, NSW NSWNew South WalesNoun 1. NSW - the agency that provides units to conduct unconventional and counter-guerilla warfareNaval Special Warfare . Horin, A. 1995, `Home truths about literacy', Sydney MorningHerald, 9 November 1995, p. 25. Hornsby, D. & Sukarna, D. 1986, Read On: A Conference Approachto Reading, Martin Educational, Sydney. Kohl, W. 1976, Reading: How To, Penguin Educational, Ringwood, Vic. MacIver, D.J., Reuman, D.A. & Main, S.R. 1995, `Socialstructuring of the school: Studying what is illuminating il��lu��mi��nate?v. il��lu��mi��nat��ed, il��lu��mi��nat��ing, il��lu��mi��natesv.tr.1. To provide or brighten with light.2. To decorate or hang with lights.3. what couldbe', Annual Review, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 375-400. Moyle, D. 1968, The Teaching of Reading, Ward Lock, London. Murphy, G. & Murphy, L. 1990, High School Success: How to Helpyour Teenager Succeed at High School, Leaf Press, East Fremantle, WA. Neuman, S.B. & Prowda, P. 1982, `Television viewing and readingachievement', Journal of Reading, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 666-670. Peters, C.W. 1990, `Content knowledge in reading: Creating a newframework', in Reading in the Middle School (2nd edn), ed. G.G.Duffy, International Reading Association, Newark, DE. Reid, J.A., Forrestal, D. & Cook, J. 1989, Small Group Learningin the Classroom, Primary English Teaching Association, Rozelle. Reifer, J.S., Goodwin-Schiff, A. & Towber, D. 1989, `Drawinghomework: An important tool in artistic development', HunterOutreach, Summer, p. 7. Tinker, M.A. & McCullough, C.M. 1975, Teaching ElementaryReading. (4th edn), Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Prentice Hall publishes print and digital content for the 6-12 and higher education market. HistoryIn 1913, law professor Dr. , Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Vaughan, J.L. & Estes, T.H. 1986, Reading and Reasoning beyondthe Primary Grades. Allyn & Bacon, Newton, MA. Venezsky, R. 1996, `Reading partners: The Read Write Now! PartnersTutoring Program', The Reading Teacher, vol. 50, no. 2, pp.148-150. Wang, M. C. 1992 Adaptive Education Strategies: Building onDiversity, Paul H. Brookes, Baltimore, MD. Waterland, L. 1988, Read with Me: An Apprenticeship apprenticeship,system of learning a craft or trade from one who is engaged in it and of paying for the instruction by a given number of years of work. The practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as in modern Europe and to some extent Approach toReading. (2nd rev. ed.). Thimble Press The Thimble Press was an eighteenth century printing device thought to be invented by Jefferson Hume, a relatively unknown Scottish engineer.Resembling a thimble in shape, the metal container was worn over a finger and used to imprint ornate drop capital characters onto , Stroud stroud?n.A coarse woolen cloth or blanket.[After Stroud, an urban district of southwest-central England.] , England. Wiggins, G. 1993, Assessing Student Performance: Exploring thePurpose and Limits of Testing, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden , CA. Wixson, K. K. 1983, `Questions about a text: What you ask about iswhat children learn', The Reading Teacher, vol. 37, no. 3, pp.287-294. Isabelle Kearsley has been a resource teacher for many years and ispresently studying in a doctoral program at Central QueenslandUniversity. Her research interest is in the transition of strugglinglearners from primary to high school settings. Address: 73 Matthew Street, Rosewood rosewood,popular name for the ornamental wood of several species of tropical trees, especially for the heartwood of certain leguminous trees of the genus Dalbergia of the family Leguminosae (pulse family). Brazilian rosewood, or jacaranda (D. , Qld 4340

Building Community In Schools.

Building Community In Schools. BUILDING COMMUNITY IN SCHOOLS THOMAS J. SERGIOVANNI JOSSEY-BASS,1994 $25.00, 256 pages By combining research, case studies, and original ideas, ThomasSergiovanni attempts to address the major obstacle to providing qualityeducation in schools today: a loss of a sense of community. Building onprevious books about effective school leadership, Sergiovanni offers thereader ideas about the root causes of this loss of school community andways in which individuals concerned with this issue might reverse thistrend. Written for parents, teachers, superintendents, scholars ineducational administration, organizational theorists, and othersinterested in building community, the author expounds on why reversingthe loss of community is not only in our best interest for children, butwhy such community development is essential for us, as human beings. The opening chapters of the book lay out the origins of communityloss today, how the loss is manifested in our schools, and why itsre-establishment is so critical. Sergiovanni sees the breakdown inschool community in its relation to the dissolution of community insociety at large. In our past, the socialization socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. of young people wasshared by the family, the neighborhood, and the school. Today, societalchanges have contributed to the partial failure of each of theseinstitutions to provide social support for children, leading them tolook internally or to dysfunctional substitutes to address this need forcommunity. While the author is careful to state that the schools cannever be a replacement for family and neighborhood, "communitybuilding in schools can provide an important safety net as an interimstrategy" for "as schools become communities, they facilitatethe strengthening of family and neighborhood" (p. 13). Sergiovanni claims that schools have come to be seen asorganizations rather than communities. Dividing content areas intodepartments, separating students into grade levels, and designingexplicit instructional delivery vehicles are all ways to convince thepublic that the school knows what it is doing; creating rules andregulations and monitoring programs convey the message of control.However, Sergiovanni claims that such directives over time separateorganizations from the people they are created for and end up servingtheir own organizational goals. The resultant self-interest tricklesdown to each level of the organization, leaving principals, teachers,and students working solely for their own calculated reasons, seekingreward and avoiding punishment. Communities, however, are different inthat they join people to a purpose, connect people via commitment notcontract, and rely on norms and values over external control measures. The reason community is so critical, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Sergiovanni, isbecause of its status as a basic human need. Drawing upon the work ofLeakey, Oldenquist, and Durkheim, the author furthers the claim ofhumans as social beings who, when faced with the absence of socialconstructs, experience negative consequences. Needs are divided intorational connections, emphasizing the pursuit of self-interest, andcultural connections, focusing on loyalties, purposes, and sentiments.While both connections are part of our human reality, schools have begunto promote a dominance of rational connections over cultural ones. The remainder of the book reveals Sergiovanni's ideas on howcommunity can be incorporated into today's schools. While schoolscan become communities in many different forms, the need for them firstbecoming purposeful pur��pose��ful?adj.1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician.2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. communities is paramount. These purposefulcommunities are "places where members have developed a community ofmind that bonds them together in special ways and binds them to a sharedideology" (p. 72). Curriculum is another way to help createcommunity in a school by transforming the ideology into decisions aboutwhat should be taught and how the curriculum should be organized. Yetboth the discipline of adhering to such shared beliefs and thediscretion of allowing teachers and students some freedom to createtheir own teaching objectives and learning outcomes are essential. On aclassroom level, democracy can be used to include all classroom membersin designing discipline strategies, instilling in��stillalso in��stil ?tr.v. in��stilled, in��still��ing, in��stills also in��stils1. To introduce by gradual, persistent efforts; implant: "Morality . . . a spirit of generosity,engaging students in service projects, and enabling students to resolveconflicts peacefully. Such a democratic community promotes activecitizenship Active citizenship generally refers to a philosophy espoused by some organizations and educational institutions. It often states that members of companies or nation-states have certain roles and responsibilities to society and the environment, although those members may not have and student involvement, leading to intrinsic classroommotivation. Professionalism can assist this transformation by committingeducators to improving their practice, assisting their colleagues, andviewing students as persons who require care. Professionalism transformsa school into "a place where everyone is involved in learning andeveryone is involved in teaching" (p. 143). This characteristicreveals Sergiovanni's two remaining utopian ideals for today'sschools: becoming communities of learners and communities of leaders.Only where openness to new ideas, suspension of judgments, andcommitment to inquiry exist can true reflection and dialogue occurbetween all members. Sergiovanni claims that when such learning is mademanifest, there is no need for a single, authoritative leader. Thecreation of a community of the mind, centered around theall-encompassing ideology, "becomes the primary source of authorityfor what people do" (p. 170). Principals, teachers, and studentsalike are followers of this ideal, and their commitment to making this areality makes them all leaders. Sergiovanni makes a convincing argument for the need to createcommunity in today's schools and offers some helpful guidelineswhich schools can use to implement change on different levels to reachthis goal. Particularly enriching are the means by which the mission ofa school can be inculcated into each realm of a school's social andintellectual structure and into the relationships exhibited by itsmembers. Likewise, the concluding chapter on leadership is beneficialfor its summation summationn. the final argument of an attorney at the close of a trial in which he/she attempts to convince the judge and/or jury of the virtues of the client's case. (See: closing argument) of central themes and its innovative application ofthese ideals to the nebulous and evolving concept of school leadership. The only detractions from this book were its lack of specific meansby which to achieve the community constructs extolled by the author,some minor inconsistencies in the intellectual arguments, and a seemingdisconnect disconnect - SCSI reconnect between some of the author's ideas and the targetaudience. Sergiovanni provides the intellectual framework and benchmarks toachieve a successful school community but does not clearly represent themeans by which these community standards Community standards are local norms bounding acceptable conduct. Sometimes these standards can itemized in a list that states the community's values and sets guidelines for participation in the community. can be achieved. The authordemonstrates how a school with an established community atmosphere wouldappear and suggests certain essential elements inherent in the existenceof such an atmosphere, yet for the process involved in creating such acommunity, Sergiovanni relies exclusively on case studies. While many ofthe case studies are helpful and informative, not all of them clarifythe methods used to achieve the specific community characteristics forwhich they are being recognized. Further, the case studies whichdescribe the process of community building are often situation-specificand may not be applicable to all schools. Such an open-ended set-upallows for a fair amount of organizational freedom in constructingcommunity, but might not meet the needs of administrators from schoolswho are suffering from a dearth of concrete ways in which to begin thecommunity development process. Therefore, the content of this bookoffers a clear look at the final destination of a school embracing amodel of community but at times remains vague on the journey a schoolmust take to reach this goal. This reviewer also takes issue with some of the terminology andarguments used to further the points being made about community. The useof some terms and examples causes one to question whether they werechosen simply as a convenient means to drive the author'spreconceived pre��con��ceive?tr.v. pre��con��ceived, pre��con��ceiv��ing, pre��con��ceivesTo form (an opinion, for example) before possessing full or adequate knowledge or experience. arguments or if they are supposed to truly reflectestablished community practices. The most glaring example of this occursin the section on democracy. The notion of infusing democracy into theclassroom has merit, but the wholesale reliance on this notion opens theentire concept to question. The author contends that a classroom inwhich students design the discipline policies is preferable to one inwhich those same policies are created by the teacher. Sergiovanni positsthat in the former, fewer discipline problems occur, while in thelatter, "no lessons are learned" (p. 133). The author offers acontrived example of a student who fails to complete an assignment, butis allowed to reflect on how he let his classmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... down and turn in theassignment later. Leaving aside pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. theory and practice, one hasto wonder the true lesson that is being learned by the student in thissituation. Is it more valuable to learn that through a student-createddiscipline policy approach, second chances are to be expected, or that,as is the case in the traditional system, that actions haveconsequences? Combine this with the earlier assertion of the author thata community breakdown exists in the home. If the home is not providingstructure or discipline, is it not contradictory to claim that theschool should provide this support for the child yet deny the school themeans to discipline? While the author admits that certain behavioralacts should be explicitly up to the determination of adults, the listSergiovanni mentions includes such extremes as weapons, fire alarms, andalcohol. Clearly there is a middle road that should allow teachers toinfuse in��fusev.1. To steep or soak without boiling in order to extract soluble elements or active principles.2. To introduce a solution into the body through a vein for therapeutic purposes. their own measure of rule-making and discipline, as opposed towholesale reliance on democracy to enhance community. Apart from this example, the entire notion of democracy and its usein the book calls into question what the author is trying to get across.Throughout the book, Sergiovanni meticulously chooses words and phrases Words and Phrases?A multivolume set of law books published by West Group containing thousands of judicial definitions of words and phrases, arranged alphabetically, from 1658 to the present. to emphasize precise meanings. Yet the author incorrectly applies theterm democracy to the classroom environment when discussing disciplinestrategies to promote active citizenship. Sergiovanni contends thatstudents should be enlisted to help determine the rules and norms ofclassroom behavior in order "for the classroom to become ademocratic community" (p. 120) to prepare students for activecitizenship. The author then cites the U.S. Constitution as an exampleof "unflinching testimonies to democratic values that define theobligations of citizenship" (p. 123). Yet, the obligations ofcitizenship spoken of by our ancestors Our Ancestors (Italian: I Nostri Antenati) is the name of Italo Calvino's "heraldic trilogy" that comprises The Cloven Viscount (1952), The Baron in the Trees (1957), and The Nonexistent Knight (1959). was not one of democracy, but ofa republic. Our system of government requires citizens to voluntarilyhand over their individual rights or control to the care and guidance ofothers who rule for them. It is this ideal, if the author wishes to drawthe connection between present and future citizenship, that shouldjustify allowing the teacher to prescribe the rules of classroombehavior and discipline. Therefore, are the examples of a democraticclassroom advocated by Sergiovanni designed to bolster this incorrectview of citizenship, or is the paramount ideal of democracy, regardlessof the accuracy of its portrayal, used to construct these notions ofclassroom practices? The greater point rests in the potential reason why suchterminology was chosen and the audience for which the book was written.Throughout the book, there are a lot of unnamed, but clearlyidentifiable religious notions. The author suggests that communitycannot be achieved unless we commit ourselves to "love thy neighboras thyself thy��self?pron. ArchaicYourself. Used as the reflexive or emphatic form of thee or thou.thyselfpronArchaic the reflexive form of thou1 " (p. 29). Private schools are championed over publicschools in promoting cultural connections because of their"well-established religious and other traditions" (p. 59). Indiscussing professional communities, the author laments that "eventhough we fall short, our quest for Verb 1. quest for - go in search of or hunt for; "pursue a hobby"quest after, go after, pursuelook for, search, seek - try to locate or discover, or try to establish the existence of; "The police are searching for clues"; "They are searching for the the professional ideal is a worthyend in itself" (p. 152), reflecting the wisdom of Christianspiritual masters, such as Thomas Merton. Yet when referring todiscipline, Sergiovanni claims that the purpose is to teach studentscitizenship. It seems rather odd that in a book about community whichcontains hidden references to religion, that the purpose of disciplinewould not elicit calls to justice, to divine love, or to help build thekingdom of God on earth. This reviewer has to wonder if Sergiovanni hastempered beliefs about community for a secular audience. It would beinteresting to see if, in dealing with Catholic schools, Sergiovannimight move beyond the notions of democracy and citizenship to a moresatisfying theological foundation for community. Sean Lynch Sean Lynch (born 31 January 1987) is a Scottish professional footballer who plays for Hibernian in the Scottish Premier League.Lynch is another youngster coming through the ranks making his first-team debut against Kilmarnock on 5 April 2006. is an assistant administrator and teaches Americanhistory at Bishop Sullivan High School For Sullivan High School in Sullivan, Indiana, see . Sullivan High School is a high school located in the Rogers Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. Their athletic teams are known as the Tigers. External linksSullivan High School website in Baton Rouge, Louisiana For the Canadian restaurant, see .Baton Rouge (from the French baton rouge), pronounced /ˈb?tn ˈɹuːʒ/in English, and .

Building Connect: Siemens Building Technologies.

Building Connect: Siemens Building Technologies. www.usa.siemens (Siemens AG, Munich, Germany, www.siemens.com) A leading European electrical and electronics firm founded in 1847. Siemens has more than 430,000 employees in nearly 200 countries, and more than 50,000 professionals are engaged in research and development. .com/buildingtechnologies Internet InternetPublicly accessible computer network connecting many smaller networks from around the world. It grew out of a U.S. Defense Department program called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), established in 1969 with connections between computers at the , Pricing based ondistrict needs Building Connect by Siemens connects fire, communication, securityand building control systems. In emergencies, a school's firecontrol panel communicates directly with the card access system, pagingspeakers and phone system. Mass notification and access systems alsocommunicate with the building automation system and trigger (1) A mechanism that initiates an action when an event occurs such as reaching a certain time or date or upon receiving some type of input. A trigger generally causes a program routine to be executed. alarmnotification and the execution of smoke control sequences. BuildingConnect also links mechanical systems such as chillers and boilers tothe building automation system to provide optimal heating and coolingstart-stop operation along with centralized cen��tral��ize?v. cen��tral��ized, cen��tral��iz��ing, cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To draw into or toward a center; consolidate.2. alarms and monitoring.

Building a Roman legionary fortress.

Building a Roman legionary fortress. ELIZABETH SHIRLEY. Building a Roman legionary fortress. 160 pages,52 figures, 8 tables. 2001. Stroud stroud?n.A coarse woolen cloth or blanket.[After Stroud, an urban district of southwest-central England.] & Charleston (SC): Tempus;0-7524-1911-0 paperback 17.99 [pounds sterling] & $29.99. Dr SHIRLEY's book is a very good idea too but hers treats afamiliar theme often handled vaguely. It is summed up in the tables andcharts. The tables calculate materials and labour for various timberbuildings by stage of construction, and for masonry masonry:see brick; concrete; stonework; tile. masonryCraft of building in stone, brick, or block. By 4000 BC, Egypt had developed an elaborate cut-stone technique. . The charts analyse an��a��lyse?v. Chiefly BritishVariant of analyze.analyseor US -lyzeVerb[-lysing, -lysed] or -lyzing, the sequences of tasks. Services are covered and supplies too. Good,clear illustrations are provided. Inchtuthill, of course, is the basicmodel. The text is straightforward and set out well with headings andsub-headings. A Roman engineer would have approved! See too DE LA BEDOYERE and JAMES & MILLETT in `Britain &Ireland' and ADKINS and STEPHENSON in `Paperback editions',below.

Building a fast track: Memphis City Schools let its papers fly out the window when it installed a network infrastructure.

Building a fast track: Memphis City Schools let its papers fly out the window when it installed a network infrastructure. Problem: Without a modern and efficient network infrastructure, teachers and administrators at Memphis (Tenn.) City Schools were spending excessive time completing reports, leaving less time to improve educational processes and assist students. The lag in technology left students to rely mainly on textbooks and isolated dial-up Internet that did not afford them the same opportunities as students in other districts, says Jim Long, principal at Craigmont High School Craigmont High School is a public high school (grades 9-12) located in Memphis, Tennessee in the Raleigh community. It is part of the Memphis City Schools district. As of 2006, the school principal is Sherilyn Brown. The school has an enrollment of approximately 1,600. . Solution: Administrators at Memphis City Schools Memphis City Schools is a school district located in Memphis, Tennessee, United States.MCS serves the entire city of Memphis. Some areas of unincorporated Shelby County are zoned to Memphis City Schools from Kindergarten through 12th grade. realized that with 118,000 students in 182 schools, they needed a more effective way to circulate information throughout the district and provide students with better learning tools. The district partnered with XO Communications XO Communications is a United States telecommunications firm and one of the largest Competitive Local Exchange Carrier (CLEC) in the country. It is owned by XO Holdings, Inc OTCBB: XOHO. and IBM (International Business Machines Corporation, Armonk, NY, www.ibm.com) The world's largest computer company. IBM's product lines include the S/390 mainframes (zSeries), AS/400 midrange business systems (iSeries), RS/6000 workstations and servers (pSeries), Intel-based servers (xSeries) to implement an improved IT infrastructure and managed hosting solution that sped up administrative tasks and left more time, money and resources for students. The district's local area network had been in place since the mid-1980s. Every school was connected, but "all that system offered was mainframe connectivity," says James Smith James Smith is the name of: People named James SmithSports figuresJames Crosbie Smith (1894–1980), English cricketer James Douglas Smith (born 1977), English cricketer James Douglas Smith (born 1940), New Zealand cricketer , executive IT director at Memphis City Schools. There was minimal Internet access See how to access the Internet. in some schools, and it was not cohesive. Documents, such as budget and student performance reports, were typically run once a month. On a tight budget, administrators did not want a service that required a large initial investment. Memphis was eligible for government E-rate funding, saving them 90 percent of the cost to install the system. However, the district still had to maintain and monitor the network. It opted for a pay-as-you-go service, similar to a utility. XO Communications provided the network, while IBM assisted in network design and project management during implementation, completed in 2001. The district uses a managed hosting solution for daily maintenance, Delivering Interesting Lessons Today, the district has greater Web access than before, says Smith, with six drops in every classroom and fast Internet connections at every workstation. Because many textbooks now come with CDs and Internet links, students now have access to multimedia tools. Joy Whitehead, Cordova Cordova,Spain: see Córdoba. Middle School principal, says seventh-grade biology teachers use virtual dissection dissection/dis��sec��tion/ (di-sek��shun)1. the act of dissecting.2. a part or whole of an organism prepared by dissecting. to prepare their students before actual dissection. "Our students are computer literate computer literacyn.The ability to operate a computer and to understand the language used in working with a specific system or systems.computer literate adj. at a very young age," Whitehead says. "Technology engages them better than giving them a book and telling them to read a chapter." The network has "opened up the world of distance learning," says Smith. Students can take classes that, before, could not have been offered due to low demand, such as Russian language Russian language,also called Great Russian, member of the East Slavic group of the Slavic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Slavic languages). . Getting Student Data Quickly Teachers and administrators have instant access to student performance records, attendance records and lesson-planning tools. "Teachers have more access ... to pull up info on student assessment and student achievement that they didn't have access to before," Smith says. They can easily look up records of a student transferring to their school from somewhere else in the district. Electronic data is circulated throughout the district quickly and efficiently. Performance reports are no longer outdated when teachers receive them, so students get help right away. Reports that once took principals two weeks are now completed in 30 minutes, giving them more time to supervise teachers and concentrate on educational programs and processes. Not only is Memphis City Schools saving time, the district is "also saving money. In the end, savings total $700,000 annually because the district does not have to pay 13 IT technicians to monitor the network. By integrating the telephone system with the network, the district saved more money while giving teachers the added benefit of having a telephone in each classroom. Michelle Lawler is editorial assistant.

Building a future for future builders: a constructive look at ACE Tech Charter High School.

Building a future for future builders: a constructive look at ACE Tech Charter High School. America is facing a skilled labor shortage A Labor shortage is an economic condition in which there are insufficient qualified candidates (employees) to fill the market-place demands for employment at any price. This condition is sometimes referred to by Economists as "an insufficiency in the labor force. in the constructionindustry. Predictions, like those from the U.S. Department ofLabor's Bureau of Labor Statistics Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. , are that things may get worse.Retiring construction workers must be replaced if this industry is togrow. The estimate is around a quarter of a million replacements areneeded each year. But, how do you attract young people into a profession that hasbeen stereotypically looked upon as menial MENIAL. This term is applied to servants who live under their master's roof Vide stat. 2 H. IV., c. 21. and low paying? One schoolhas accepted the challenge with industry support, and the futurebuilders of tomorrow are walking its halls. Laying the Foundation People will always need places in which to live and eat, work andplay, meet and learn, shop and be entertained, or receive care andrehabilitate re��ha��bil��i��tatev.1. To restore to good health or useful life, as through therapy and education.2. To restore to good condition, operation, or capacity. . But without an adequate skilled labor force, who willbuild such facilities? In the third-largest school system in the nation,the first high school ever backed by the construction industry openedits doors for the 2004-2005 school year. Chicago's ACE Tech Charter High School is the brainchild of agroup of construction industry leaders who are aware of and concernedabout the growing shortage of skilled craftsmen necessary to keep theirtrade viable and workforce replenished. ACE Tech was created to preparehighly qualified inner city youths to fill the future growing employmentneeds in the construction industry. Across the nation, there is an emergence of charter schools, eachwith its own focus and unique mission. ACE Tech's mission is"to provide the highest levels of instruction, academic achievementand exemplary character development to prepare students for college orapprenticeship education." A charter school may set its own polities for curricula but is heldaccountable for student academic achievement by the board of education,which provides a percentage of the school's funding. Additional funding often comes from special interest groups andfundraising. ACE Tech has the backing of the building trades such asplumbing, pipefitting, carpentry, engineering and construction. Forinstance, the Chicago-area International Brotherhood of ElectricalWorkers The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW) is a labor union which represents workers in the electrical industry in the United States and Canada, particularly electricians, or Inside Wiremen, in the construction industry and linemen and other employees of public (IBEW IBEWn abbr (US) (= International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers) → sindicato internacional de electricistasIBEWn abbr (US) (= International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers ) and National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA NECA National Electrical Contractors AssociationNECA National Exchange Carrier AssociationNECA National Electrical and Communications Association (Australia)NECA National Electricity Code Administrator (Australia))jointly contributed $100,000, and a labor management association,Construction Industry Service Corporation, donated $50,000. Community organizations, foundations and even universities havesponsored charter schools, but to see the building trades come togetheras they have to "construct" ACE Tech is inspirational. Thishas given career and technical education a boost, the building industryhope, and most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , the possibility of a promising future forthe students who attend ACE Tech. Changing Perceptions The world always looks different through different sets of eyes.Chicago's inner city youth may view education as a way out, butlike many kids across the nation, they still may not know exactly whatit is they want to do occupationally, and finding a place to fit in canbe problematic. Schools such as ACE Tech can give students a head startfor entering a career or going on to college. The school'sadministrators are hoping that prospective students will see that thereis a bright future for those who want to work hard, and that enteringthe fields of architecture, construction or engineering can berewarding. Attracting young people to the construction industry is achallenge, however. There is a negative image about skilled laborcareers. Many young people view such jobs as "below them,"menial and low paying. This is far from the truth. For instance, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the Occupational Outlook Handbook,pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters and steamfitters make up one of thelargest and highest paid construction occupations. In 2002, this groupmade a median hourly earning of $19.31. The report also indicates thatas skills increase, wages increase. Another plus is that the young andinexperienced in��ex��pe��ri��ence?n.1. Lack of experience.2. Lack of the knowledge gained from experience.in apprentices receive the same benefits as experiencedpipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters and steamfitters. The most significant point made by the handbook about this groupwas that job opportunities should be excellent, because not enoughpeople are seeking training. This is an open invitation to young peoplewho are considering the diverse options building trades offer, and ACETech is hoping that by exposing students to the various aspects of theconstruction industry, it will help them make informed decisions abouttheir future careers while simultaneously preparing them with lifeskills that will aid them professionally and personally. Organizations like Chicago's Mechanical ContractorsAssociation (MCA MCAin full Music Corporation of AmericaEntertainment conglomerate. It was founded in Chicago in 1924 by Jules Stein as a talent agency. In the 1960s it bought Decca Records and Universal Pictures, and today it produces films, music, and television shows. ) and United Association's Local Union 597, one ofthe largest pipefitting local unions, have joined together in aggressivecampaigns to change the perception that the youth of today have aboutthe building trades. One of their most creative programs has been the"Tomorrow Team." A comic book comic bookBound collection of comic strips, usually in chronological sequence, typically telling a single story or a series of different stories. The first true comic books were marketed in 1933 as giveaway advertising premiums. and a CD contain colorfulcharacters such as Service Tech Dude and Pipefitter Chick, "justtwo ordinary citizens who pursue exciting careers in the pipingindustry." The goal is to attract more people to enroll inapprenticeship programs. One of ACE Tech's goals is to prepare students for such aprogram. It is a very imaginative way to present the industry to youngpeople of all ages and is presented in both English and Spanish. Building Education and Character The need for skilled laborers alone does not qualify students forthe jobs. As much as the building trades industry would like to fill themany existing and impending im��pend?intr.v. im��pend��ed, im��pend��ing, im��pends1. To be about to occur: Her retirement is impending.2. vacancies, they want applicants who areinterested in the field and who are prepared. ACE Tech has adoptedrigorous academic and character development courses, offering anaccelerated college preparatory curriculum that includes the equivalenceof six years of math, four years of science and eight years of languagearts language artspl.n.The subjects, including reading, spelling, and composition, aimed at developing reading and writing skills, usually taught in elementary and secondary school. . In addition, all ACE Tech students are required to take the ACTand SAT college entrance exams Noun 1. entrance exam - examination to determine a candidate's preparation for a course of studiesentrance examinationexam, examination, test - a set of questions or exercises evaluating skill or knowledge; "when the test was stolen the professor had to . "ACE's aim is to provide its students with 'OptionsPlus'--the option to attend college or be exceptionally prepared toscore well on the apprenticeship entrance exams," says PabloSierra, ACE Tech's chief educational officer. "Equallyimportant to its academic mission, ACE has a very structured and highlydisciplined character development program in place." Among some of the unique elements of the program are: * the ACE Advisory, an all boys or girls guidance session that ispart of the core curriculum and is designed so the teacher loops withthe same students for all four years * a merit/demerit system in which teachers issue demerits forviolating any of 15 "non-negotiable" policies * a Homework Resource where students are required to stayone-and-a-half hours after school if they do not do their homework * a student uniform policy that stipulates no gym shoes gym shoesNoun, plsame as plimsollsgym shoesnpl → zapatillas fpl de gimnasiagym shoesgym npl → chaussures , the ACElogo polo shirts must be tucked into dark blue dress slacks with belts,and no excess jewelry jewelry,personal adornments worn for ornament or utility, to show rank or wealth, or to follow superstitious custom or fashion.The most universal forms of jewelry are the necklace, bracelet, ring, pin, and earring. or earrings on girls with none allowed on boys * freshmen only admittance AdmittanceThe ratio of the current to the voltage in an alternating-current circuit. In terms of complex current I and voltage V, the admittance of a circuit is given by Eq. (1), and is related to the impedance of the circuit Z by Eq. (2). because the ACE curriculum is structuredto provide a seamless full four-year program that does not allow fortransfers from secondary schools "An example of ACE's character development efforts can beseen when one knocks on a classroom door on any given day,"explains Sierra. "A randomly selected student greeter eagerlywelcomes each visitor with intense eye contact, a firm handshake and aproper salutation. This is followed by an explanation of the dailylesson and an invitation into the room. This script is played out atevery classroom visit." Sierra notes that, although some may view these gestures assomewhat artificial and put on, the "greeter program" as wellas other institutionalized in��sti��tu��tion��al��ize?tr.v. in��sti��tu��tion��al��ized, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��ing, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��es1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to.b. rituals are designed to instill in��stillv.To pour in drop by drop.instil��lation n. disciplineand strength of character in ACE students. "In fact," Sierra says, "the ACE Tech administrationsees this as an integral part of the curriculum that is on equal footingwith other core subjects. The ACE mantra mantra(măn`trə, mŭn–), in Hinduism and Buddhism, mystic words used in ritual and meditation. A mantra is believed to be the sound form of reality, having the power to bring into being the reality it represents. is that students can'tcontrol many of the external variables that affect their learning orcount on having dynamic self-sacrificing teachers. They can, however,count on themselves. The discipline to learn and succeed must benurtured and internalized." Taking Assessment "Initial results seem tentatively promising," notesSierra with only 12 weeks into ACE Tech's first year. "Themain goal has been to establish the core base of academic essentials anddiscipline so that students will be well prepared to ascend to thespecialized world of construction-related trades and professions. Thesecurriculum tracks are still on the drawing board as ACE looks to developthe programs in time for the promotion of its first-ever freshmen classto sophomore year." Reports show that ACE students have increased their math scores by10 percentage points since their initial ACT entrance exams last July. "There have been zero incidents of such common high schoolailments as fighting, cutting class or gang-related activities,"says Sierra. "ACE students are universally acknowledged as wellmannered man��nered?adj.1. Having manners of a specific kind: ill-mannered children.2. a. Having or showing a certain manner: a mild-mannered supervisor. and well dressed wherever they visit. Racially diverse andhaving quickly garnered a reputation as a 'no excuses'regimented learning oasis, ACE Tech has become the school of choice inthe troubled Southside Chicago neighborhood it calls home."

Building an interconnected policy-training-practice-research agenda to advance school mental health.

Building an interconnected policy-training-practice-research agenda to advance school mental health. Abstract School mental health (SMH SMH Sydney Morning Herald (Australia)SMH St Michael's HospitalSMH Shaking My HeadSMH Strong Memorial HospitalSMH Sanders Morris Harris Inc.SMH Screening for Mental Health, Inc. ) programs and services have grownprogressively in the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. in the past two decades, related toincreased acknowledgement of their advantages and prominent federalinitiatives (e.g., No Child Left Behind Act The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110), commonly known as NCLB (IPA: /ˈnɪkəlbiː/), is a United States federal law that was passed in the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001 President's New FreedomInitiative; 2003). Nonetheless, SMH is an emerging and tenuouslysupported field with many issues in need of attention. In this articlenine immediate challenges to the advancement of innovative andsuccessful SMH policies and programs are highlighted. Consideredtogether, these challenges suggest a picture of current SMH programs andproviders, and their educator partners, operating under often untenablecircumstances. As the field moves forward, enhanced commitment to a truepublic mental health promotion approach provides a framework forconcrete actions to be taken to advance an interconnectedpolicy-training-practice-research agenda in school mental health. ********** The unmet mental health needs of youth have been well documented.Between 20% and 38% of youth in the United States (U.S.) need mentalhealth intervention health interventionHealth care An activity undertaken to prevent, improve, or stabilize a medical condition , and 9-13% have serious disturbances (Goodman etal., 1997; Grunbaum et al., 2004; Marsh, 2004). However, as few asone-sixth to one-third of youth with diagnosable disorders receive anytreatment, and, of those who do, far less than half receive adequatetreatment (Burns et al., 1995; Leaf et al., 1996; Weisz, 2004). Although the idea of developing a comprehensive continuum of mentalhealth supports for children in U.S. public schools dates back to theearly 20th century (Breckenride, 1917 and Hunter, 1904 as cited inFlaherty & Osher, 2003), in the past two decades a national movementbegan to take hold and school mental health (SMH) programs have grownprogressively (Flaherty & Osher, 2003). This growth has been spurredby recognition of the crisis of youth mental health, appreciation of thefact that many more youth can be reached in schools, and acknowledgementof the benefits to schools of SMH programs and services in reducingbarriers to student learning (Adelman & Taylor, 2000). The growth ofthe field also has been supported by significant federal attention (seeNational Institute of Mental Health, 2001; U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979Health and Human Services, HHS , 1999; U.S. Public Health Service, 2000). More recently,the final report of the President's New Freedom Commission onMental Health (www.mentalhealthcommission.gov) highlighted unmet needsand barriers to care, including (among others) fragmentation and gaps incare for children and lack of a national priority for mental health andsuicide prevention Suicide prevention is an umbrella term for the collective efforts of mental health practitioners and related professionals to reduce the incidence of suicide through proactive preventive measures. (President's New Freedom Commission on MentalHealth, 2003). In its proposal for transformed mental health care inAmerica, the commission made a specific recommendation to improve andexpand school mental health programs. The 2004 American Academy ofPediatrics Policy Statement on School-Based Mental Health Services health servicesManaged care The benefits covered under a health contract (Committee on School Health, 2004) also concluded that"school-based programs offer the promise of improving access todiagnosis of and treatment for the mental health problems of childrenand adolescents" (p. 1), that they improve opportunities forcoordination of services (especially coordination with educationalprograms) and that they offer strong potential for prevention as well asintervention efforts. Schools offer unparalleled access as a point of engagement withyouth to address their interrelated in��ter��re��late?tr. & intr.v. in��ter��re��lat��ed, in��ter��re��lat��ing, in��ter��re��latesTo place in or come into mutual relationship.in academic and mental health needs(President's New Freedom Commission, 2003). In fact, studiessuggest that for the small percentage of youth who receive mental healthservices, most actually receive them within schools (Rones &Hoagwood, 2000; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999,2001). In addition to enhancing access to services for youth (Weist,Meyers, Hastings, Ghuman, & Ham, 1999), SMH can reduce the stigma ofhelp seeking (Nabors & Reynolds, 2000), promote generalization andmaintenance of treatment gains (Evans, 1999), enhance capacity forprevention and mental health promotion (Elias, Gager gag��er?n.Variant of gauger. , & Leon, 1997;Weare, 2000), foster clinical efficiency and productivity (Flaherty& Weist, 1999), and promote a natural, ecologically groundedapproach to helping children and families (Atkins, Adil, Jackson, McKay,& Bell, 2001). Further, when done well, SMH programs and services are associatedwith strong satisfaction by diverse stakeholder stakeholdern. a person having in his/her possession (holding) money or property in which he/she has no interest, right or title, awaiting the outcome of a dispute between two or more claimants to the money or property. groups (Nabors,Reynolds, & Weist, 2000), improvement in student emotional andbehavioral functioning (e.g., Armbruster & Lichtman, 1999; Nabors& Reynolds, 2000), and improvements in school outcomes such asenhanced climate, fewer inappropriate referrals into special education(Bruns, Walrath, Siegel, & Weist, 2004), and reduced bullying andschool suspensions (Sugai et al., 2000; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, &Walberg, 2004). School mental health programs also help to accomplishmany of the recommended strategies for preventing and addressing theimpacts of violence on youth (U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, 2001) and preventing drop-out (Schargel & Smink, 2001).Importantly, SMH can play a role in enhancing student connectedness toschool which is associated with many positive dimensions of studentmotivation, behavior and academic performance (Wingspread Declaration onSchool Connections, 2004). In association with the above factors and findings, strong examplesof policy advocacy, service-delivery, and technical assistanceprioritizing SMH have developed in U.S. cities (e.g., Baltimore, Dallas,Los Angeles Los Angeles(lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. , Memphis) and states (e.g., Hawaii, Maryland, New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NewMexico New Mexico,state in the SW United States. At its northwestern corner are the so-called Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet at right angles; New Mexico is also bordered by Oklahoma (NE), Texas (E, S), and Mexico (S). , Ohio, South Carolina South Carolina,state of the SE United States. It is bordered by North Carolina (N), the Atlantic Ocean (SE), and Georgia (SW).Facts and FiguresArea, 31,055 sq mi (80,432 sq km). Pop. (2000) 4,012,012, a 15. ). Collaborative SMH networks and traininginitiatives also have developed at state, national and internationallevels (e.g., New Mexico School Mental Health Initiative,www.nmsmhi.org; Ohio Mental Health Network for School Success,www.units.muohio.edu/csbmhp/network.html; Center for Mental Health inSchools at UCLA UCLA University of California at Los AngelesUCLA University Center for Learning Assistance (Illinois State University)UCLA University of Carrollton, TX and Lower Addison, TX , www.smhp.psych.ucla.edu; Center for School MentalHealth Analysis and Action at the University of Maryland University of Maryland can refer to: University of Maryland, College Park, a research-extensive and flagship university; when the term "University of Maryland" is used without any qualification, it generally refers to this school ,www.csmha.umaryland.edu; Collaborative for Academic, Social andEmotional Learning, www.casel.org; IDEA Partnership, www.nasdse.org;School Mental Health Alliance, www.kidsmentalhealth.org; and theInternational Alliance for Child and Adolescent Mental Health andSchools, www.intercamhs.org). In spite of progress that has been made, SMH is an emerging andtenuously supported field, with many areas in need of furtherdevelopment and many challenges to be overcome to advance innovative andsuccessful policies and programs. Nine immediate challenges to theadvancement of innovative and successful SMH policies and programs arediscussed below. Challenges to the Advancement of School Mental Health Challenges that must be addressed include: (a) marginalization mar��gin��al��ize?tr.v. mar��gin��al��ized, mar��gin��al��iz��ing, mar��gin��al��iz��esTo relegate or confine to a lower or outer limit or edge, as of social standing. ofschool mental health; (b) implications of federalism federalism.1 In political science, see federal government.2 In U.S. history, see states' rights. federalismPolitical system that binds a group of states into a larger, noncentralized, superior state while allowing them for child-servingsystems and related school decision-making realities; (c) fundingissues; (d) service delivery capacity and prioritization of mentalhealth promotion and problem prevention; (e) training needs of educatorsand school mental health staff; (f) licensing, credentialing, andcertification issues; (g) difficulties in partnering with families andrelated challenges in meeting diverse student needs; (h) confidentialityand privacy concerns, record-keeping, and bureaucratic bu��reau��crat?n.1. An official of a bureaucracy.2. An official who is rigidly devoted to the details of administrative procedure.bu requirements; and(i) ensuring the quality of services. Marginalization of School Mental Health A vital challenge for the SMH field involves effectively answeringthe question "Why mental health programs and services inschools?" For example, school leaders might explicitly resist anagenda to expand attention to mental health issues in schools, based ona conviction that schools are not in "the mental healthbusiness" and/or concern that schools will need to assume excessiveresponsibility for students' emotional and behavioral problems.Further, stigma and poor understanding of mental health issues clearlyserve to mitigate against progress in the field. School mental healthstaff (e.g., social workers, psychologists, counselors) and programshistorically have been viewed as "add-ons" that are notcentral to the academic mission of schools (see Paternite &Johnston, 2005; School Mental Health Alliance, 2005; Sedlak, 1997). Inaddition, school reforms generally have not incorporated a focus onaddressing non-cognitive barriers to development, learning, and teaching(Burke, 2002; Koller & Svoboda, 2002). These non-cognitive barriersinclude environmental/contextual factors (e.g., poor nutrition, familyconflict, negative peer influences, exposure to violence, neglect, etc.)as well as individual biological and psychological factors (e.g.,externalizing and internalizing mental health problems, traumareactions, etc.). Although school policy makers and reformersacknowledge that academic success promotes well-being, they do not oftenacknowledge that, in turn, well-being promotes academic success (Klern& Connell, 2004). This failure is reflected in the schoolbuilding-level and district-level "report card" indicatorsthat state departments of education employ to monitor federally-mandated"Adequate Yearly Progress Adequate Yearly Progress, or AYP, is a measurement defined by the United States federal No Child Left Behind Act that allows the U.S. Department of Education to determine how every public school and school district in the country is performing academically. " (AYP AYP Adequate Yearly Progress (National Assessment of Educational Progress)AYP Anarchist Yellow PagesAYP American Youth Philharmonic ) in fulfillment of the NoChild Left Behind requirements. These indicators reflect a nearexclusive focus on proficiency test proficiency testn → prueba de capacitaci��nperformance, attendance, andgraduation rate (Education Week, 2005). Arguably ar��gu��a��ble?adj.1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved.2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. , the school success ofmany students would be enhanced if assessment of AYP focused moredirectly and adequately on social, emotional, and behavioral conditions(barriers), and other important mediators of academic achievement(Honig, Kahne, & McLaughlin, 2001; Zins et al., 2004). Implications of Federalism for Child-Serving Systems and RelatedSchool Decision-Making Realities Federalism (states' rights, local control), which is ahallmark of governance in the U.S. (Hermann & Rollins, 2003), setsan important policy context for the SMH field. Related to federalism,there is notable variability in how child-serving systems (includingeducation and mental health) function both across and within states (seeWeist, Paternite, & Adelsheim, 2005). Because states and localcommunities have significant latitude in decisions about policy andpractice, the extent, type, and quality of services that are offeredvary tremendously. For example, one community in a state mightdemonstrate relatively advanced progress in SMH with a neighboring neigh��bor?n.1. One who lives near or next to another.2. A person, place, or thing adjacent to or located near another.3. A fellow human.4. Used as a form of familiar address.v. community showing no progress, with no dialogue or collaboration betweenthese communities. The significant variability in policies and practicesacross child-serving systems within and between localities contributesto inertia in local and state governments in advancing reforms andimprovements in these systems. Organization of state level initiativesthat reform and improve child-serving systems (described in more detaillater) is an important strategy to address existing variability in SMHpolicy and practice. Three major characteristics of school systems in the U.S. compoundthe challenges noted above. First, U.S. public schools are characterizedby substantial organizational fluidity associated with high rates ofmobility and turnover among administrators, teachers, and other schoolpersonnel (Guarino, Santibanez, Daley, & Brewer, 2004). Second,school district and building policies and practices are quite fluid andhighly reactive to shifting policy and programming realities associatedwith the No Child Left Behind mandate. Personnel changes and shiftingmandate-driven pressures necessitate repeated revisiting of agreementsmade between SMH programs and host schools and ongoing advocacy tosustain established relationships. Third, within most school districts,decentralized de��cen��tral��ize?v. de��cen��tral��ized, de��cen��tral��iz��ing, de��cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To distribute the administrative functions or powers of (a central authority) among several local authorities. decision-making is the norm. In this site-based managementapproach, substantial decision-making authority is delegated from schoolboards and superintendents to individual school building principals andpersonnel. While such site-based decision-making reflects current bestpractice in the field of education, there are clear practicalimplications and challenges for SMH programs. Specifically, workingagreements regarding roles, functions, and communication between mentalhealth staff coming into schools and school personnel typically need tobe negotiated and maintained building by building. Funding Issues Realities associated with marginalization, federalism, andcharacteristics of schools in turn contribute to significant challengesin securing and sustaining funding for SMH programs and services. Manypotential funding sources for SMH (e.g., from the Early, PeriodicScreening, Diagnosis and Treatment [EPSDT EPSDT Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment ] mechanism of Medicaid, Safeand Drug Free Schools, Title I) are underutilized, and other sources offunding (e.g., Medicaid fee-for-service) are highly bureaucratic andcumbersome (Evans et al., 2003). Related to these factors, fundingprovided by education systems for mental health practices in schools islimited, leading to over-burdened school-employed mental healthprofessionals. When community mental health mechanisms (e.g., Medicaidfee-for-service) are used, they typically place significantadministrative burdens on community providers who work in schools, whoalso are over-burdened. Within SMH programs, funding for prevention andschool-wide mental health promotion initiatives is particularly limited(Calfee, 2004). If such funding challenges are to be overcome, it isincumbent upon SMH proponents to do a better job in making the case forthe value of SMH programs and services in addressing the interrelatedacademic and mental health needs of students. Service Delivery Capacity and Prioritization of Mental HealthPromotion and Problem Prevention School mental health programs also often struggle with insufficientcapacity to meet needs of students. Typically, SMH providers contendwith a flood of referrals for students with serious problems andcrises--far exceeding the available staffing to address the need (seeWeist, 1997). In turn, these SMH providers are unable to prioritizepreventive interventions and mental health promotion efforts. Ingeneral, efforts to improve school environments (Atkins et al., 2001),broadly promote student mental health (e.g., through life skillscurricula; see Botvin, 2000), proactively support and encourage positivestudent behavior (e.g., through Positive Behavior Intervention andSupport; see Horner & Sugai, 2000), and implement a range ofprevention and early intervention ear��ly interventionn. Abbr. EIA process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. efforts in schools are limited (seeWeare, 2000). These represent critical need areas for the SMH field,consistent with the "transformation" called for by thePresident's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003), withmany lessons in mental health promotion and problem prevention to belearned from other countries (Rowling & Weist, 2004). These problems in SMH reflect the generally poor capacity of thechild and adolescent mental health field in the U.S. (New FreedomCommission, 2003; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999;U.S. Public Health Service, 2000). Unfortunately, the capacity problemin SMH has contributed to reluctance of schools and collaboratingcommunity partners to initiate systematic mental health screening foryouth, which not only would improve much needed early identification andintervention efforts (New Freedom Commission, 2003), but also wouldassist in the development of compelling data-driven local communitysupport for advocacy and action to address urgent youth mental healthneeds and to promote the mental health of all youth (Center for SchoolMental Health Assistance [CSMHA], 2004). This service delivery capacityproblem, and its solution, are quite obviously related to themarginization and funding issues discussed above. Training Needs of Educators and School Mental Health Staff In general, in spite of the significant day-to-day role they playin promoting student mental health, teachers have not been trainedadequately and typically are not supported for this role (Collaborativefor Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2003). Forexample, in the second author's home county 1,179 classroomteachers completed a detailed Classroom Teacher Survey (Piland, 1999).Approximately 70% indicated that their pre-service college courses didnot address mental health issues in the classroom. Virtually all of them(97%) thought that they should be involved in some way in helpingstudents deal with their mental health problems, and 70% expressed aninterest in additional training about mental health issues (Paternite,2004). In a focus group and key informant interview study with schoolpersonnel in the same geographic region, Perez (2002) reported consensusamong school staff that they have insufficient knowledge about mentalhealth issues and that they have a strong interest in additionaltraining and resource materials. Participants also prioritized a highneed for more personnel who are available in schools on a daily basis toassist in dealing with crises, and they expressed enthusiastic supportfor SMH clinicians and expanded prevention programs. Such data indicatean urgent need to enhance educator pre-service and in-service training,based on careful analysis of issues confronted in the classroom and inthe school (Paternite & Johnston, 2005). Similar to the trainingneeds of educators, there is a significant need to enhance thepre-service and in-service training of mental health professionalscoming from the community to better prepare them to engage witheducators and to function effectively in and with schools. We have emphasized (e.g., Weist, 2003) that school-employed mentalhealth professionals such as school psychologists, social workers andcounselors (and specially trained nurses and educators) are the logicalleaders in the work of expanding and improving SMH services in a schoolbuilding. This is related to the knowledge of these staff on deliveringmental health services within the culture of schools and theirestablished relationships and connections in the school. However, thereare important and currently inadequately addressed needs related totraining and role re-definition for these staff. These needs arebeginning to be addressed in some training programs in schoolpsychology, social work, and counseling which are enhancing roles ofthese mental health professionals in the delivery of mental healthpromotion and intervention, and assisting them in expanding their scopeof work beyond traditional boundaries (e.g., in assessment, crisisresponse and academic advisement Deliberation; consultation.A court takes a case under advisement after it has heard the arguments made by the counsel of opposing sides in the lawsuit but before it renders its decision. ADVISEMENT. ; see Power, DuPaul, Shapiro, &Kazak, 2003; Rappoport, Osher, Garrison, Anderson-Ketchmark, &Dwyer, 2003). For mental health staff not employed by schools, in bothpre-service and in-service education there are needs to extract themfrom their entrenchment in "traditional" approaches to servicedelivery. In this regard, movements are encouraging within fields suchas clinical and counseling psychology Counseling psychology as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. , child and adolescent psychiatry A branch of psychiatry that specialises in work with children, teenagers, and their families. HistoryAn important antecedent to the specialty of child psychiatry was the social recognition of childhood as a special phase of life with its own developmental stages, starting with ,and clinical social work, to empower mental health staff to shiftactivities out of underused offices and to teach them how to functionmore collaboratively and effectively as members of the school community(see Paternite & Johnston, 2005; Weist et al., 2005). A critical need for the field is for true interdisciplinarytraining, where staff from these mental health disciplines (school andcommunity employed) are training together and with educators, bothbefore and after beginning their professional service (Waxman, Weist,& Benson, 1999; Weist, Ambrose, & Lewis 2006). Unfortunately,this remains an area with almost no examples to build from. Licensing, Credentialing, and Certification Issues School mental health professionals from diverse disciplines areconfronting challenges related to standards for practice (Adelsheim,2004). For example, school psychologists and school social workerstypically receive certification to practice in schools, whereas clinicaland counseling psychologists and clinical social workers receivelicenses to practice in the community. In general, certification andlicensure standards for different professions are not well integrated,and there are ambiguities in practice standards. An example is communityproviders practicing in schools under their professional licenses whichdo not assure adequate training to work in school settings (seeRappaport et al., 2003; Waxman et al., 1999). In addition, consistentwith the above discussion, distinctions among various child andadolescent mental health disciplines are becoming increasingly blurred.For example, school psychologists are being licensed and are practicingin community settings; clinical and counseling psychologists are workingin schools; and all child psychology disciplines are increasinglyinvolved in case management and outreach in the community, historicallythe domain of social work (see Flaherty et al., 1998; Weist et al., inpress). Intensified discussion of these important issues is warranted.For example, a national workgroup of leaders from multiple "schoolmental health disciplines" could develop recommendations fornegotiating confusing certification and licensure standards and forcredentialing for effective practice in the interdisciplinary SMHenvironment. Difficulties in Partnering With Families and Related Challenges inMeeting Diverse Student Needs Challenges in ensuring meaningful family participation in mentalhealth services for children are not necessarily resolved by offeringservices in schools. Access to services is enhanced for youth in SMH.However, access might not be enhanced for family members, depending on anumber of factors (e.g., parental attitudes toward the school,employment constraints, etc.). Without concerted efforts to engagefamilies it is quite easy for SMH providers to replicate the practice ofchild community mental health for which there is too often limitedfamily participation (Axelrod et al., 2004). Such practice isinconsistent with findings documenting the importance of familyparticipation for maximing the likelihood of successful intervention(Lowie, Lever, Ambrose, Tager, & Hill, 2003; Mease & Sexton sex��ton?n.An employee or officer of a church who is responsible for the care and upkeep of church property and sometimes for ringing bells and digging graves. ,2004; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special EducationPrograms, 2002). Schools and SMH programs also struggle to meet the diverse needs ofincreasingly diverse student bodies. These pressures have beenformalized for��mal��ize?tr.v. for��mal��ized, for��mal��iz��ing, for��mal��iz��es1. To give a definite form or shape to.2. a. To make formal.b. in the mandates of No Child Left Behind, which indicates thatall schools and school systems must analyze and report on studentperformance for eight "cultural" groups: American Indian,Asian, African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. , White, Hispanic, Economically Disadvantaged,Students with Disabilities, and English Language English language,member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. Learners. To avoiddesignation as "failing," schools must promote comparableachievement across these groups. If disproportional dis��pro��por��tion��al?adj.Disproportionate.dispro��por achievement isidentified, appropriate remedial actions must be implemented, includingthe redistribution of resources. This challenge underscores the value ofSMH in implementing effective and culturally competent services toreduce barriers to learning for diverse student cultural groups. Thechallenge also highlights significant policy and training needs toenhance the cultural competence cultural competenceSocial medicine The ability to understand, appreciate, and interact with persons from cultures and/or belief systems other than one's own of SMH programs and services, a focusthat is currently quite limited. Culturally competent mental health carein schools pertains not only to diverse racial/ethnic groups but also tostudents presenting with vulnerabilities related to recent immigration immigration,entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. (Aponte & Bracco, 2000), and chronic illness and disablingconditions (Schaeffer, Weist, & McGrath, 2003). Confidentiality and Privacy Concerns, Record Keeping, andBureaucratic Requirements Unique confidentiality and privacy concerns must be addressed inSMH programs and services (Prodente, Sander, & Weist, 2002).Community mental health staff are accustomed to stringent protectionsinvolving informed consent, confidentiality and release of clientinformation, and adherence to the mandates of the Health InsurancePortability and Accountability Act The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1996.According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) website, Title I of HIPAA protects health insurance coverage for workers and their families when (HIPAA). School health and educationstaff typically are accustomed to more free-flowing communication andmight not know about or work within HIPAA guidelines. Legal mandatesdictated by the Family Education Rights Privacy Act (FERPA FERPA Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (aka the Buckley Amendment)FERPA F��d��ration Europ��enne des Retrait��s et des Personnes Ag��es (French)) governschool information sharing See data conferencing. . Negotiating release and exchange ofinformation about students between community mental health staff inschools and school staff can be a particular challenge, especiallyrelated to the HIPAA-FERPA interface (Acosta, Tashman, Prodente, &Proescher, 2002). In addition, securing consistently available,comfortable, and private space in school buildings for confidentialinteractions typically is a significant challenge for all SMH staff,whether employed by the school or a by a community agency. There also are ambiguities in record keeping and other relevantregulations and practices for SMH programs and staff. Reflective ofdifferences between HIPAA and FERPA regulations, there are differencesin the way mental health service records typically are kept by agencies,compared to educational records in schools. In addition, federal andstate standards for providing mental health services to youth throughcommunity mental health centers (CMHCs) might or might not apply to SMHprograms. Some SMH programs operate outside of the purview The part of a statute or a law that delineates its purpose and scope.Purview refers to the enacting part of a statute. It generally begins with the words be it enacted and continues as far as the repealing clause. of CMHC CMHCcommunity mental health center. standards. These often are grant and contract-funded programs, some ofwhich are affiliated with graduate training programs in various mentalhealth fields, and they typically do not bill for services, whichusually requires status as a licensed CMHC (Lever, Stephan, Axelrod,& Weist, 2004). In addition to the lost potential revenue throughreimbursement, these programs also operate with a heightened degree ofrisk and liability if they are not affiliated formally with a mentalhealth or educational system. Alternatively, other SMH programs operateunder the auspices of a CMHC and bill for services. Such billing, whichrequires considerable (and often inadequately provided) administrativesupport, can dramatically shape the focus of the program and servicestoward treatment of individuals with established diagnoses and away fromimportant preventive and mental health promotion services whichtypically are "non-billable" (e.g., school and classroomclimate interventions, participation on school teams and committees,consultation with teachers, attendance at IEPs, in-servicepresentations) (Lever et al., 2004). This problem is exacerbated by thefact that CMHC standards for outpatient therapy are based on traditionalindividual, intrapsychic intrapsychic/in��tra��psy��chic/ (-si��kik) arising, occurring, or situated within the mind. in��tra��psy��chicadj.Existing or taking place within the mind or psyche. models for intervention with youth--wellarticulated standards for more flexible and contextually drivenintervention and prevention services that should characterize the SMHfield have not been developed (Evans et al., 2003). Ensuring Quality of Services Well-coordinated infrastructure to ensure a full continuum ofmental health practices in schools usually is lacking, resulting in afragmented and ineffective approach (Adelman & Taylor, 1999). Inaddition, there are significant training needs to ensure coordination ofefforts, interdisciplinary practice, family-educator-mental healthcollaboration and delivery of effective services (Power et al., 2003;Rappoport et al., 2003). Contemporary child and adolescent mental healthand educational professional literatures emphasize the importance ofevidence-based practices. However, in reality, mental health andeducation staff receive minimal if any training in these practices, andgenerally they do not receive ongoing training, technical assistance,and support to sustain their implementation (Graczyk, Domitrovich, &Zins, 2003). Similarly, research and practice in quality assessment andimprovement (QAI QAI Quality Assurance InternationalQAI Quality Assurance Institute (Orlando, Florida)QAI Quality Assurance InspectionQAI Quality Auditing InstituteQAI Quantitative Analytics Inc.QAI Quality Assurance Instructions ) is limited in the child and adolescent mental healthfield, and especially within SMH (see Leatherman & McCarthy, 2004;Weist et al., 2002). Descriptions of QAI approaches in the professionalliterature tend to focus on bureaucratic processes (e.g., credentialing,paperwork requirements) and/or liability protection (e.g., proceduresfor handling crises; Weist et al., 2002). However, in recent years QAI in SMH has received increasedattention. Numerous dimensions of quality have been articulated,including: (a) amount and quality of stakeholder input in programdevelopment, implementation, and evaluation; (b) extent of collaborativerelations among families, school staff and community providers; (c)range of preventive and treatment services provided; (d) productivity ofstaff; (e) extent and quality of training and supervision of staff; (f)strategies used to coordinate services and avoid duplication; (g) use ofempirically supported interventions; (h) use of appropriate evaluationstrategies; (i) use of evaluation findings to continuously improveprograms and services; and (j) extent of awareness of and support forschool mental health efforts (see Ambrose, Weist, Schaeffer, Nabors,& Hill, 2002; Evans, Sapia, Axelrod, & Glomb, 2002; Nabors,Lehmkuhl, & Weist, 2003). The Way Forward The above challenges suggest a picture of SMH programs andproviders, and their educator partners, operating in stressfulenvironments characterized by many conflicting agendas, in demandingpositions with unrealistic workloads, and with insufficient training,support and ongoing technical assistance to function effectively. Inthis context, it is not surprising that SMH programs have struggled toconsistently document impacts on outcomes valued by families, schoolsand communities. That is, services easily can be stretched too thin,contributing to weakened impacts. This problem is consistent withdifficulties faced by child and adolescent mental health therapists ingeneral, who struggle in everyday practice to deliver outcomes of themagnitude reported by providers working within the context of awell-supported, well-resourced research grant (Weisz, 2004). In school mental health, there is a need for a substantialinterconnected policy-training-practice-research agenda tosystematically advance school mental health, with key elements describedhere (also see Kratochwill, Albers, & Shernoff, 2004). Althoughthere are many steps to get to this point (see Lever et al., 2003), webegin with a community showing a commitment to and broadly involved inadvancing the full continuum (from broad mental health promotion anduniversal prevention to intensive intervention) of effective SMHpractices (see Wandersman, 2003). From this point, the development of asystematic quality assessment and improvement (QAI) agenda isimperative. The QAI agenda should emphasize collaboration at allpossible levels (e.g., between all mental health staff and with youthand families, educators, school leaders), evidence-based practices,developmental and cultural competence, ongoing evaluation, andcontinuous quality improvement. School mental health practice should besupported with strong training, technical assistance, pragmatic ongoingsupport (e.g., updated files of assessment measures and resourcematerials) and high quality ongoing supervision and on-site coaching(see Graczyk et al., 2003). With these factors in place, the likelihoodof achieving positive outcomes is increased, with outcome findings inturn fueling advocacy and policy improvement agendas. Advocacy andpolicy enhancement in turn leads to increased resources, which arestrategically applied to expand and improve the quality of services,leading to a positive "snowballing SnowballingUsed in the context of general equities. Process by which the exercise of stop orders in a declining or advancing market causes further downward or upward pressure on prices, thus triggering more stop orders and more price pressure, and so on. " process of growth andimprovement of services in schools across the community and beyond (seePaternite, Weist, Burke, & Flaspohler, 2005). These key elementsreflect SMH as a cornerstone in the development of a public mentalhealth promotion system in the U.S., emphasizing more preventiveservices for children and youth "where they are" andconsistent with experiences occurring in other nations (see Rowling& Weist, 2004; Weist, in press). However, while movement toward this vision of public mental healthpromotion has been called for by the Surgeon General The U.S. Surgeon General is charged with the protection and advancement of health in the United States. Since the 1960s the surgeon general has become a highly visible federal public health official, speaking out against known health risks such as tobacco use, and promoting disease (U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, 1999, 2000) and more recently by thePresident's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003), thereality in most schools and communities in the U.S. is very far from thevision. In a recent report to the Institute of Medicine (Weist,Paternite, & Adelsheim, 2005), we offered a number ofrecommendations to help bridge this vision-reality gap: Strong federal and national support of SMH Strong federal and national support of SMH should build on currentinitiatives. For example, as noted above, the final report of the NewFreedom Commission on Mental Health (2003), outlined a set ofrecommendations for transforming mental health care in the U.S. and madean explicit recommendation to "improve and expand school mentalhealth programs" (recommendation 4.2). This report, the firstpresidential report on mental health in 30 years, offers sanction,credibility and authority to state and local planning efforts, based onfederal consensus developed by many national experts and endorsed by thePresident (CSMHA, 2004). However, the onus is on state and local leadersto publicize and advocate for implementation of the recommendations ofthe report and to utilize them to advance the cause of SMH (Hogan,2003). There also are many related national initiatives (e.g.,Schools/Healthy Students, Child and Adolescent Service System, andCoordinated School Health programs) and resources (e.g., nationaltraining, technical assistance and policy dissemination efforts) thatcan be marshalled to support state and local efforts. Organized State Level Initiatives for SMH Around the country, through federal and other support, strongstate-level initiatives for SMH are emerging (e.g., in Hawaii, Maryland,Ohio, New Mexico, New York, South Carolina). These initiatives arestriving to be broadly inclusive, reflecting the engagement of families,schools, the mental health, child welfare and juvenile justice systems,and other key stakeholders. They have common commitments to: (a)advancement of SMH as a part of broader efforts to develop systems ofcare and to partner with schools to address the essential links betweenmental health and school success; (b) statewide and regional training,technical assistance and support to improve and expand services thatreach down to community and school building levels; (c) a strong focuson public awareness and involvement; and (d) strong policy andlegislative advocacy. It also is critical that such state-levelinitiatives work to infuse in��fusev.1. To steep or soak without boiling in order to extract soluble elements or active principles.2. To introduce a solution into the body through a vein for therapeutic purposes. knowledge about effective practice into everyday service delivery. In this regard, the work of key opinion leaders isessential, through their efforts to champion effective practices anddissuade TO DISSUADE, crim. law. To induce a person not to do an act. 2. To dissuade a witness from giving evidence against a person indicted, is an indictable offence at common law. Hawk. B. 1, c. 2 1, s. 1 5. against the continuation of ineffective practices. Strong Local Leadership for School Mental Health Strong local leadership in communities that brings togetherfamilies, schools and staff from other child-serving systems(particularly mental health) is essential (Wandersman, 2003). Suchleadership should advocate for movement toward a full continuum ofeffective school-wide mental health promotion, problem prevention, earlyintervention, assessment and treatment, for all youth in schoolsincluding those in general and special education (Weist, 1997).Strategies for enhancing public awareness and actively engaging thepublic in planning (e.g., through relationships with multiple media) areessential (Clauss-Ehlers & Weist, 2002). A true commitment to aninterdisciplinary approach (with families considered a discipline) alsois critically important at the local level, includinguniversity--community partnerships and well supported efforts togenuinely bridge research and practice. Active, Ongoing Communication and Linkage Across Local, State andFederal/National Initiatives States have an essential organizing role in ensuring effectivefederal-state-local communication and linkage, because they oftenmediate federal/national funding, resources, and information tolocalities. Much of the progress in SMH over the past two decades hasrelated to effective networking across localities and states, andsharing lessons learned about best practices (Lever et al., 2003).Organization of initiatives for SMH at the state level facilitates suchinformation-sharing and helps to address local community and state levelisolation from valuable information about innovations and effectivepractices. Such isolation is one of the most serious negativeimplications of federalism. Conclusion Although the idea of developing a comprehensive continuum of mentalhealth supports for children in U.S. public schools dates back to theearly 20th century (Breckenride, 1917; Hunter, 1904; as cited inFlaherty & Osher, 2003), it was not until the late 20th century thata national movement began to take hold (see Robinson, 2004; Weist,Evans, & Lever, 2003). Currently, SMH programs and services arereceiving considerable attention; are being emphasized in historicnational initiatives (e.g., New Freedom Initiative, No Child Left BehindAct); are the focus of growing and increasingly integrated nationalcoalitions; and are being supported by the voices of family, school, andcommunity stakeholders throughout the country. In spite of thisrecognition, there is a disconnect between what we know would be helpfulto improve and expand SMH programs and services and what actually ishappening in most school buildings in the U.S. Moving toward a truepublic mental health promotion approach, building from major policyinitiatives such as the President's New Freedom Initiative (2003),and pursuing an interconnected policy-training-practice-research agenda,with states as the key change agents, is in our view the way forward. Acknowledgments 1 Based on a report: Weist, M.D., Paternite, C.E., & Adelsheim,S. (2005). School-Based Mental Health Services, submitted to theInstitute of Medicine, Board on Health Care Services, Crossing theQuality Chasm: Adaptation to Mental Health and Addictive Disorders Addictive disordersAddictive disease disorders are characterized by the chronic use of a drug (such as heroin, cocaine, or amphetamines), alcohol, or similar substances. Committee 2 Supported by cooperative agreement U45 MC 00174-10-0 from theOffice of Adolescent Health, Maternal and Child Health Bureau (Title V,Social Security Act), Health Resources and Services Administration The Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) is an agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services whose goal is to improve access to health care for those without insurance. , withco-funding by the Center for Mental Health Services For the California public school, see .The Center for Mental Health Services (CMHS) is a unit of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) witin the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.US government-supported group. , Substance Abuse andMental Health Services Administration The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), an operating division of the Health and Human Services Department (HHS), was established in 1992 by the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Reorganization Act (Pub. L. No. 102-321). . Also supported by grant1R01MH71015-01A1 from the National Institute of Mental Health. 3 Supported in part by the Ohio Department of Education(project#062984-6B-PB-05P). Thanks are extended to Elizabeth Moore forher significant assistance in developing this article. References Acosta, O. M., Tashman, N. A., Prodente, C., & Proescher, E.(2002). Implementing Successful school mental health programs:Guidelines and recommendations. In H. S. Ghuman, M. D. Weist, & R.Sarles (Eds.), Providing mental health services to youth where they are:School- and other community-based approaches (pp. 57-74). New York:Brunner-Routledge. Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (1999). Mental health in schoolsand system restructuring. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 137-163. Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2000). 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Weist, Ph.D., Division of Child andAdolescent Psychiatry, Center for School Mental Health Analysis andAction, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 737 West LombardStreet Lombard Street,in London, England. It is a street of banks and financial houses that takes its name from the Lombard merchants and moneylenders who settled there in the 13th cent. , 4th Floor, Baltimore, MD 21201. E-mail:mweist@psych.umaryland.edu.