Computer Anxiety and Performance: An Application of a Change Model in a Pedagogical Setting.

Computer Anxiety and Performance: An Application of a Change Model in a Pedagogical Setting. This paper identifies the computer anxiety - performance effectsand a means of implementing change to improve learning by applying achange management model. An application of the process and outcomes,guided by hypotheses on the computer anxiety - performance linkage linkageIn mechanical engineering, a system of solid, usually metallic, links (bars) connected to two or more other links by pin joints (hinges), sliding joints, or ball-and-socket joints to form a closed chain or a series of closed chains. , isanalyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. . The pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. results indicated a drop in thecomputer anxiety level of students in a beginning course on computers inbusiness, nevertheless, with a negative finding of performance.Implications and suggestions are offered. Computer literacy Understanding computers and related systems. It includes a working vocabulary of computer and information system components, the fundamental principles of computer processing and a perspective for how non-technical people interact with technical people. and learning in the higher education higher educationStudy beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. curriculumhas become imperative in view of the pervasiveness per��va��sive?adj.Having the quality or tendency to pervade or permeate: the pervasive odor of garlic.[From Latin perv of computerapplications at the workplace. However, being a recent phenomenon,students, both the traditional high school graduates and the returningadults, find computer learning rather stressful. The stress due to thecognitive as well as psychological factors is identified as"Computer Anxiety" (Desai & Richards Rich��ards, Dickinson Woodruff 1895-1973.American physician. He shared a 1956 Nobel Prize for developing cardiac catheterization. 1998). Consequently,the adverse effects of such computer anxiety on student performance mustbe recognized and remedial actions A remedial action is a change made to a nonconforming product or service to address the deficiency.Rework and repair are generally the remedial actions taken on products, while services usually require additional services to be performed to ensure satisfaction. taken to mitigate mit��i��gatev.To moderate in force or intensity.miti��gation n. the effects. This paper reports an application of a change management process toa class on computers in business. The students are treated by apedagogical intervention in attempts to reduce computer anxiety andimprove their learning and performance in the course. The paper isorganized as follows: (1) a model linking computer anxiety andperformance; (2) a change process to weaken the negative effects in thelinkage; (3) an application; and (4) discussion and implications. Computer Anxiety - Performance Effects: A Model Previous research findings have indicated that math anxiety iscorrelated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. to computer anxiety (Camber & Cook 1985, Igbaria &Parasuraman 1989, Sievert sie��vertn. Abbr. Sv A unit of ionizing radiation absorbed dose equivalent in the International System of Units, obtained as a product of the absorbed dose measure in grays and a dimensionless factor, stipulated by the International , et al. 1988, Shashaani 1995) and thatcomputer anxiety is similar to test anxiety (Camber & Cook 1985,Fletcher Fletcher may refer to one of the following: Ideas and companiesA fletcher makes arrows, see fletching. Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, the graduate school of international relations of Tufts University, located in Medford, Massachusetts. & Deeds 1994, Todman & Lawrenson 1992). Computeranxiety may actually be a manifestation man��i��fes��ta��tionn.An indication of the existence, reality, or presence of something, especially an illness.manifestation(man´ifestā´sh of test anxiety [8]. Hence,Desai and Richards (1998) used these correlations to establish therelationship between (1) math anxiety and performance, (2) math anxietyand computer anxiety and (3) computer anxiety and performance. In ameta-analysis meta-analysis/meta-anal��y��sis/ (met?ah-ah-nal��i-sis) a systematic method that takes data from a number of independent studies and integrates them using statistical analysis. , these authors found inverse relationships A inverse or negative relationship is a mathematical relationship in which one variable decreases as another increases. For example, there is an inverse relationship between education and unemployment — that is, as education increases, the rate of unemployment between mathanxiety and performance and between math anxiety and computer anxiety.Consequently, it could be concluded that a negative relationship existsbetween computer anxiety and performance. However, current researchevidence does not consistently indicate such a direct, linear negativecorrelation Noun 1. negative correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with small values of the other; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and -1indirect correlation . Based on the subjects' self-perceptions andexperience, some found a negative correlation (Hayek & Stephens1989), Harrington 1988, George et al. 1992). Others found norelationship (Ward 1989, Dimock & Cornier 1991). Yet some of theseauthors (Hayek & Stephens 1989, Dimock & Cornier 1991) andothers (Vogel 1994, Compeau & Higgens 1995, Bronson 1998) foundother intervening in��ter��vene?intr.v. in��ter��vened, in��ter��ven��ing, in��ter��venes1. To come, appear, or lie between two things: You can't see the lake from there because the house intervenes.2. or moderating variables influencing both positivelyand negatively. For example, computer anxiety discouraged dis��cour��age?tr.v. dis��cour��aged, dis��cour��ag��ing, dis��cour��ag��es1. To deprive of confidence, hope, or spirit.2. To hamper by discouraging; deter.3. computer use(Compeau & Higgens 1995, Bronson 1998) resulting in poor performance(Compeau & Higgens 1995). Extroverts and those with low computeranxiety had negative effects on performance (Vogel 1994). Students withpositive attitudes towards computer performed better (Hayek &Stephens 1989, Dimock & Cornier 1991, Munger & Loyd 1989,Ferguson 1997). Lastly, a more complex relationship was found betweencomputer anxiety and performance (Ferguson 1997). Another study foundthat the level of computer anxiety and perceived advantage rather thanease of use of computers contributed to computer ability (Marcolin etal. 1997). The relationship between computer anxiety and performance issimilar to the relationships previously found between goal setting andperformance (Locke 1967) and stress and performance (Quick & quick1984, Spector et al. 1988). In both cases it was found that moderatelevels of each produce optimum performance while very difficult and veryeasy levels produce lower levels of performance. Similarly it wasconcluded that high and low computer anxiety results in lower levels ofperformance (Desai & Richards 1998, Mikulincer et al. 1990). Two types of anxiety were identified by earlier researchers (Desai& Richards 1998, Mikulincer et al. 1990, Howard & Smith 1986):state anxiety, which is caused by a current situation and trait trait(trat)1. any genetically determined characteristic; also, the condition prevailing in the heterozygous state of a recessive disorder, as the sickle cell trait.2. a distinctive behavior pattern. anxiety,which is defined as the disposition to react with worry, tension andfear of failure in an evaluative situation. They suggest two ways toimprove performance: technical training and psychological or behavioral behavioralpertaining to behavior.behavioral disorderssee vice.behavioral seizuresee psychomotor seizure. training. Weakening weak��en?tr. & intr.v. weak��ened, weak��en��ing, weak��ensTo make or become weak or weaker.weaken��er n. the Negative Computer Anxiety-Performance Link: A ChangeModel In view of the aforementioned a��fore��men��tioned?adj.Mentioned previously.n.The one or ones mentioned previously.aforementionedAdjectivementioned beforeAdj. 1. challenges underlying learning andperformance of computer applications, the traditional classroom lecture,discussion and demonstration alone are not sufficient in transferringthe computer abilities and skills. What occurs here is a transformationof individual skill development from a no technology or low technologyto a high technology level. The question then is, given the priorfindings that a high level of anxiety inhibits computer ability andperformance, how can individuals' anxiety be reduced and motivationtowards this major change enhanced? We adapted a popular organizationchange model. This is the Force Field Analysis proposed by Lewin (1951).It can help understand and influence the propensity to change in theindividual. Applying the model to the current issue of computer anxiety,we designed an exploratory study (Desai & Amba-Rao 1998). This wasconducted as a preliminary step in the main study. The Change Model According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the Force Field Analysis, Figure 1, the strength ofvarious positive and negative forces that influence change, in reducinganxiety and increasing the propensity to learn and perform, willdetermine the effective implementation of the desired change.Consequently, these forces from the individuals' viewpoint shouldbe identified in specific situations, and their strength assessed(Cummings & Huse 1989). Then the positive forces (drivers) should bestrengthened and the negative forces (barriers) should be reduced,reducing the barriers being more effective (Lewin 1951, Cummings &Huse 1989). For example, in a computer course explanation of thebenefits in acquiring computer skills is a potential driver, while fearof failure is an inhibitor inhibitor/in��hib��i��tor/ (in-hib��i-tor)1. any substance that interferes with a chemical reaction, growth, or other biologic activity.2. , of motivation and learning. The drivers andbarriers together can determine the balance of computer anxiety leveland its effects on motivation, learning and performance. The lengths ofthe lines in Figure 1 indicate the magnitude of the force, and therelative importance of each factor. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] The Exploratory Study The study was conducted using a core of six students out of a totalof 18 students in an introductory course on computers in business,taught by one of the authors of this paper, in Summer 1997. The firstsession of the course was devoted to orientation of the students to thenature and objectives of the course. The class was conducted without anyparticular distinction among the students in terms of their priorexposure to computer skills. A wide gap was found in the grades of thesesix students and the remaining 12 students in their mid-term test whichwas a hands-on, application test. They expressed frustration, worry andanxiety about their inability to perform adequately in their test,particularly with the time constraint In law, time constraints are placed on certain actions and filings in the interest of speedy justice, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is moot. . Thus, the students manifested acombination of test and computer anxiety. The instructor decided onaction at two levels: behavioral change and technical/educational change(Steizer & Gray 1988). He provided personal attention, guidance,counseling, coaching and practice, with "enhancers" and"barriers" in view and aimed exclusively at these sixstudents. He gave a make-up Make-upThe amount of deficiency when a cash flow or capital item is deficient. For example, an interest make-up relates to the interest amount above a ceiling percentage. mid-term application test, pointing outerrors while requiring the students to determine the solutions. Theoutcomes were expressed reduction of test anxiety and computer anxiety,and grade improvement by at least one letter grade. Thus, in several ways, the instructor engaged in intrusive in��tru��sive?adj.1. Intruding or tending to intrude.2. Geology Of or relating to igneous rock that is forced while molten into cracks or between other layers of rock.3. Linguistics Epenthetic. guidanceand counseling guidance and counseling,concept that institutions, especially schools, should promote the efficient and happy lives of individuals by helping them adjust to social realities. with the six students, while maintaining the treatment ofthe other members in the normal mode. The efforts included, first,releasing the pressure of anxiety and tension, thus addressing thenegative forces. Then offering additional opportunities forcomprehension comprehensionAct of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. and repetitive learning, thus utilizing the positiveforces of change (Lewin 1952). The overall effects are that the computeranxiety - motivation/performance negative link was weakened weak��en?tr. & intr.v. weak��ened, weak��en��ing, weak��ensTo make or become weak or weaker.weaken��er n. andperformance improved. The ongoing coaching, counseling and monitoring, as needed as neededprn. See prn order. ,continued until the finals. The new learning and improved performancewere sustained and reflected in the final test grades. The mean classscore for the mid-term application test was 64 out of 70. In the similarfinal test it was 66 out of 70, the final course score being 340 out of400 (85 percent). The exploratory study suggests beneficial outcomes in addressingcomputer anxiety by a recognized, planned method (Lewin 1951).Consequently, we conducted another study as a next step to furtherexamine the process and outcome in learning computer skills by a moresystematic means. We felt it appropriate to conduct the study inincremental Additional or increased growth, bulk, quantity, number, or value; enlarged.Incremental cost is additional or increased cost of an item or service apart from its actual cost. stages of complexity so that we could observe the changes ona micro, individual basis and include some objective measures. The nextand a future stage of the study, therefore, can be designed on a morerigorous basis. For the current application we adapted Lewin'sChange Process (Lewin 1952), which is a development over his Force FieldAnalysis (Lewin 1951). Lewin's Change Process Applying his Force Field Analysis, Lewin (1952) proposed a changeprocess that involves three steps: unfreezing the current state,introducing the planned change One of the foundational definitions in the field of organizational development (aka OD) is planned change:“Organization Development is an effort planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned and refreezing the new state to sustainit (see Table 1). The objective in the computer course is to bring aboutthe new state of reduced computer anxiety and increased performancereflected in course grades. In the unfreezing stage considering andbalancing the drivers and barriers of change disturb the status quo [Latin, The existing state of things at any given date.] Status quo ante bellum means the state of things before the war. The status quo to be preserved by a preliminary injunction is the last actual, peaceable, uncontested status which preceded the pending controversy. . Forexample, explaining the need for change and "what's init" for the students are drivers. The task complexity is a barrier(see listing in Table 1). Thus, these can also be viewed as theconsequences of status quo versus change. The perceived balance canaffect computer anxiety, learning, and performance.Table 1The Change Process in the Computer Course Unfreeze Interventions (change) Refreeze Individualized Stabilizing/ Drivers counseling and coaching Reinforcement Measures* Grade improvement * Instructor student * Monitoring and* Gaining strong interactions to guidance of foundation in a recognize concerns students trials software tool * Explore problems * Continued practice* Opportunities and means of coping * Performance feedback with new skills * Demonstrate computer * Clarifying questions techniques/operations * Recognition Barriers * Student trials* Fear of failure* Task complexity/ demand* Testing within time constrains In the second stage, the change technique, or the intervention, isimplemented. The intervention in this case is the individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. counseling and coaching/training, involving the psychological,behavioral and educational efforts. It consists of two activities.First, the counseling function wherein where��in?adv.In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned?conj.1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live.2. the instructor interacts with thestudent to recognize his/her concerns and explore problems and means ofcoping, which addressed the trait anxiety. Second, the coaching ortraining where the instructor delves Delves is a village in County Durham, in England. It is situated a short distance to the south of Consett. into the methods and techniques ofcomputer operations, their practical aspects, demonstration by theinstructor and trials by the student. The instructional intervention aswell as computer use decreases anxiety (Reznich 1996). Thus we focusedon the pedagogy and practice to treat state anxiety. However,introducing the change does not ensure that it will sustain, therefore,a third stage, "refreezing" is involved. "Refreezing" stage is reinforcing or locking-in the newstate. This stage is critical, for unless close attention is paid tothis stage the desired new behaviors may be short-lived. In the computercourse, the desired new behaviors of reduced anxiety, effectivelearning, and use of computer skills are achieved by ongoing monitoringand guidance of student trials (see Table 1). The above steps are not necessarily discrete as stated; there couldbe overlap and even reversion reversion:see atavism. to the previous steps as the instructorgoes back and forth in motivating and enabling the student to learn,decrease anxiety and frustration, gain confidence and build the neededcomprehension and skills. These steps and the components may appear tobe obvious and simple. However, the instructor needs to take planned anddeliberate actions, and be persistent in anticipating and resolvingproblems arising out of the interactions. Similarly, tensions arisingout of perceptual per��cep��tu��aladj.Of, based on, or involving perception. and other individual differences involved inimplementing the intense counseling and coaching/training need to beaddressed. An Application of the Change Process We conducted another investigation as a follow-up follow-up,n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment.follow-upsubsequent.follow-up plan of theexploratory study described above. Two hypotheses are stated, derivedfrom the Desai and Richards (1998) and Desai and Amba-Rao (1998)studies, explained earlier, linking computer anxiety and performance andthe means to weaken the negative effects in the relationship. These are: Students with a moderate level of computer anxiety will performbetter in the computer course than students who have a high level ofcomputer anxiety. The link between computer anxiety and negative performance effectscan be weakened by identifying and addressing the drivers and barriers(positive and negative forces) in learning / performance. Method and Application A sample of fifteen students in the course, The Computer inBusiness, in spring 1999 was used for the pilot study. A qualitativemeasure of computer anxiety was used. The measure was based on theresponses by the students to questions related to the use of computerand the ability of the students to perform on the computer-relatedassignments. Prior to the mid-term test, the students were asked abouttheir perceptions of the computer project assignments, the level ofdifficulty in completing their assignments, whether they understood theassignments and the concepts used. The same questions were asked priorto the final test. The students were also administered a test anxietyinstrument twice, before the mid-term and the final tests. Theinstrument had 20 self-reporting statements, using a Likert type scaleof three degrees of responses: "Never", "sometimes"and "usually", with values of 1, 2 and 3, respectively. In initiating the change process, an orientation to the course wasgiven, presenting the benefits and challenges of the computer course.Determining the level of computer and test anxiety was next, followed bythe mid-term test. After the mid-term test the instructionalintervention process began. Additional drivers and barriers discussed inthe model above came into play. Factors relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acccomputer skillacquisition and successful completion of the course were addressed. Thebarriers, in particular, were discussed with means of mitigating mit��i��gate?v. mit��i��gat��ed, mit��i��gat��ing, mit��i��gatesv.tr.To moderate (a quality or condition) in force or intensity; alleviate. See Synonyms at relieve.v.intr.To become milder. them.Explaining the instructor's strategy, they were appraised of thestudy and the means that the instructor will adopt to assist thestudents in their efforts to be successful in the course. This was theunfreezing stage. Next, the actual intervention of counseling andcoaching took place between the mid-term and the final tests. Thestudents were provided individualized attention as needed. Additionaltraining and coaching with practice sessions, including outside theclass, were included. Students were encouraged to express their personalconcerns in learning and test taking, and they were given opportunity totake two samples of the final application test. The purpose of thesemock-up mock��upalso mock-up ?n.1. A usually full-sized scale model of a structure, used for demonstration, study, or testing.2. A layout of printed matter. final tests was to afford students an opportunity to practicethe test as well as make them feel relaxed and at ease and to adapt tothe time constraint. It was assumed that after practicing for theirfinals their anxiety level will drop and they will feel relaxed andsubsequently be able to improve their performance. Students were alsoprovided with suggestions on how to reduce their anxiety and handle thefinal test. Other reinforcing actions included feedback by reaffirmingtheir correct responses and pointing out errors while allowing them toask questions and find solutions. These and other behavioral andtechnical means of encouraging and monitoring progress were adopted.Thus, these actions comprised the refreezing stage of the changeprocess. Results It was expected that the class in general would experience,initially, a notable level of computer anxiety and test anxiety. Weanticipated that, after the intervention the students' anxietylevel will drop to a desired level and, consequently, improveperformance in the final test. Initially, the students indicated both computer anxiety and testanxiety. First, in queries to their computer learning, the generalresponse of the students was that they could not remember the commandsand the sequence of steps in accomplishing certain portions of theassignments. They expressed difficulty dealing with recalling formulaeand working with multiple sheets and files. In the second round prior totheir final test, however, the response of the students regardingcomputer anxiety implied that they were very comfortable with theassignments than before and that the test simulations helped them reducetheir stress in facing the final test. The students also appearedrelaxed while taking the final test. Thus it is reasonable to believethat their computer anxiety level had reduced. As for the test anxietylevel, the scores in the two periods showed practically no difference,with mean scores of 32.2 and 34, out of possible 60 points. This weconsider an average or moderate level of test anxiety. However, theperformance in the final test fell below that in the mid-term test, withclass averages of 80.33 percent in the final versus 84 percent in themid-term test. Thus, hypothesis (1) that students with a moderate level ofcomputer anxiety will perform better in the computer course thanstudents who have a high level of computer anxiety was not supported.Hypothesis (2) that identifying and addressing the positive and negativeforces in learning/performance can weaken the link between computeranxiety and negative performance effects is not clear from the evidence. Discussion and Implications Our first hypothesis that moderate levels of computer anxiety willresult in better performance than high levels of anxiety was notsubstantiated with this group of students in the introductory course oncomputers in business. Addressing learning and performance issues inthis course appeared to have reduced trait and test anxiety to a desired(moderate) level and motivated mo��ti��vate?tr.v. mo��ti��vat��ed, mo��ti��vat��ing, mo��ti��vatesTo provide with an incentive; move to action; impel.mo the students to learn. However, it isintriguing in��trigue?n.1. a. A secret or underhand scheme; a plot.b. The practice of or involvement in such schemes.2. A clandestine love affair.v. that the results in performance had not materialized. On thecontrary, the opposite had occurred, there was a noticeable drop in theperformance score between the mid-term and final tests (84 versus 80percent). The question then is that, if test anxiety was found to be ata consistently moderate level and computer anxiety had reduced why wasperformance level low? Could it be that computer anxiety was low (ratherthan moderate) that it followed the inverted invertedreverse in position, direction or order.inverted L blocka pattern of local filtration anesthesia commonly used in laparotomy in the ox. cup relationship where highand low levels of computer anxiety result in low performance (Desai& Richards 1998, Mikulincer 1990). Our interpretation andexplanation based on the findings, instructor observations, studentinteractions and feedback are as follows. The students assumed that after practicing the two simulated finaltests it would be easy to handle the real final test. The decline inperformance can be attributed to the "over drop" in computeranxiety since the objectively measured test anxiety before mid-term andfinal remained at a moderate level. The test anxiety did not increasebut the perceived computer ability was up and computer anxiety reduced.Consequently, the students had a sense of relief from tension and fearof failure. Their confidence about their ability to handle the computerexercise in the final test appears to have been very high. They assumedthat taking the mock-up tests would enable them to handle the final testwell, therefore had low anxiety and, in turn, lower performance (Desai& Richards 1998, Mikulincer 1990). Familiarity can raise theunderstanding of computers, reduce anxiety and increase the potentialfor performance (Artwohl 1989). This seems to be in agreement with thecomputer anxiety and performance model proposed by (Desai & Richards1998, Mikulincer 1990) where individuals with a moderate level ofcomputer anxiety perform better than those who have either a high levelor a low level of computer anxiety -- the inverted cup relationship. Inthe present pilot study the students' behavior appears to fall inthe lower end of the model, that is, the students experienced anxietybelow the moderating level resulting in reduced performance. The second hypothesis states that identifying and attending to thedrivers and barriers in learning/performance can weaken the link betweencomputer anxiety and the negative performance effects. This means thatbalancing the forces involved will reduce computer anxiety and itsadverse effects on performance. In the pilot study students wereprovided with informal counseling and training in order to reduce theircomputer anxiety. Intensive efforts made to reduce both trait and statedimensions of anxiety, by paying attention Noun 1. paying attention - paying particular notice (as to children or helpless people); "his attentiveness to her wishes"; "he spends without heed to the consequences"attentiveness, heed, regard to many positive and negativeforces in learning/performance (see Table 1). Although they were notexhaustive computer anxiety was clearly reduced. This implied that thestudents' performance would improve. However, the results andobservations indicate that the computer anxiety was reduced below themoderating level leading to performance lower than the optimum level.Thus it was not clear whether the link between computer anxiety andnegative performance effects was weakened. Further insights into why orhow the computer anxiety is exceedingly ex��ceed��ing��ly?adv.To an advanced or unusual degree; extremely.exceedinglyAdverbvery; extremelyAdv. 1. reduced are: (1) a reduction intrait anxiety - putting students overly at ease by various means,particularly by showing ease of the use of computers, and assurances bythe instructor of learning, performing and scoring in the tests with theadditional student efforts; (2) reduction in state anxiety because ofadditional time and practice, including the simulated final test,resulting in a false sense of both self-efficacy self-efficacy (selfˈ-eˑ·fi·k (Bronson 1998), that isskill ability, and ease of scoring in final test. In this case thestudents might have been able to use the computer as a tool performingsome basic operations, but may not have paid attention or sufficientlymastered the task knowledge. Consequently, there may have beenapplication errors along with a "programming anxiety" (Gos1996) while performing the application (hands-on) test. The important and interesting implication is the caution that, intreating high anxiety levels, one should pay close and sustainedattention to consequences, in order to avoid a drop in anxiety levelfrom high to too low. Students do not lose sight of their objectives andgoals, as has appeared to be the case in the current study. Trait andstate anxieties as different sources should be identified in individualcases and treated accordingly. In treating high levels of anxiety futurecourses that involve computer use should include additional technicaland behavioral or psychological elements. Technical elements includedemonstrating multiple ways to perform certain tasks and providingopportunities for student practice. In addition the purpose of theassignments should be clearly stated. The students' active role andresponsibility in the process also plays a critical part in the overallimprovement of their performance. The study has some limitations, particularly in view of itspreliminary nature. The sample size is small, although an indepthqualitative analysis Qualitative AnalysisSecurities analysis that uses subjective judgment based on nonquantifiable information, such as management expertise, industry cycles, strength of research and development, and labor relations. is provided. A qualitative measure of computeranxiety used in this study is one of the means to test the computeranxiety and performance model (Desai & Richards 1998, Mikulincer1990). An instrument that provides a quantitative measure of computeranxiety level, such as the Computer Anxiety Index (CAIN) instrument(Hayek & Stephens 1989) may be used in a future study. Further wehave not clearly distinguished between students who have high and lowlevels of anxiety; instead, we determined the level of anxiety for theclass as a whole. With a larger sample a distinction can be made tostudy the differences in anxiety and performance, with appropriatetreatments for the two groups. For example, they may need more or lessof remediation of either trait or state aspects of anxiety. There areseveral antecedents influencing computer anxiety that are not consideredin this study because of the entry level course in business computerapplications, the preliminary nature of the study and the need to locuson the type of anxiety and it's effects on performance. Otherstudies have included or identified several situational and individualfactors (Marcolin et al. 1997, Gos 1996, Schuh 1996, Hemby 1998,Bozionelos 1997, Al-Jabri & Al-Khaldi 1997). Using the current studyas a base, further studies can build on it with additional factors. 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Desai, Assistant Professor of Management InformationSystems, School of Business, Indiana University Indiana University,main campus at Bloomington; state supported; coeducational; chartered 1820 as a seminary, opened 1824. It became a college in 1828 and a university in 1838. The medical center (run jointly with Purdue Univ. - Kokomo. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Mayur S. Desai, Assistant Professor of Management Information Systems,School of Business, Indiana University - Kokomo, Kokomo, Indiana For the band, see .Kokomo (IPA: [ˈkoʊ.kə.moʊ]) is the county seat of Howard CountyGR6, Indiana, United States, Indiana's 13th largest city. , Email:mdesai@iuk.edu