Co Loa: an investigation of Vietnam's ancient capital.

Co Loa: an investigation of Vietnam's ancient capital. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Introduction Mainland Southeast Asia is an excellent and under-utilised regionfor comparative studies of early state formation, with great potentialfor examining changing spatial configurations of human-environmentrelations through time (Stark 2006: 422). Ongoing archaeological andhistorical research on complexity can particularly benefit from agrowing body of Vietnamese data from periods of early ranked society,information that can contribute to the mounting evidence for how and whysmall-scale, egalitarian communities developed into complex societies inpre-modern Southeast Asia. In this paper we present the results of investigations at theabandoned fortified fortified (fôrt´fīd),adj containing additives more potent than the principal ingredient. settlement of Co Loa, which potentially forms thenode of such a polity in the Red River delta The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. near the Gulf of Bac Bo,north of Hanoi. We offer a dated sequence of construction and advancethe case that this sequence signals the rise of an indigenous statesociety in north Vietnam North Vietnam:see Vietnam. , one which only later came under the influenceof Han China. Historical context The conventional reconstruction of the protohistory pro��to��his��to��ry?n.The study of a culture just before the time of its earliest recorded history.pro of the northernVietnam region during the second half of the first millennium BCbenefits from various sources, including Vietnamese oral traditions andChinese historical records (O'Harrow 1979; Taylor 1983; Tessitore1989). These two sources, however, offer contradictory accounts. Chinesehistorical texts suggest that Vietnamese civilisation was a by-productof Chinese colonisation, describing how the imperial Han begancolonising the region in 111 BC, consolidating control during the firstcentury AD. Not surprisingly, Han texts maintain that agricultural,metallurgical and political sophistication so��phis��ti��cate?v. so��phis��ti��cat��ed, so��phis��ti��cat��ing, so��phis��ti��catesv.tr.1. To cause to become less natural, especially to make less naive and more worldly.2. emerged among the localbarbarians in Bac Bo because of imperial annexation, generally denyingin situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. and indigenous cultural development (O'Harrow 1979: 143-4). In contrast, oral traditions hold that Bac Bo was the nucleus of anindigenously developed Vietnamese civilisation with powerful kingdomsruling over vast populations before the arrival of the Chinese (Taylor1983: 3-23; Tessitore 1989: 36). In particular, Vietnamese chroniclesdescribe an indigenous Au Lac polity centred at Co Loa during the thirdcentury BC. In approximately 258 BC, a man named An Duong Vuong (alsoknown as Thuc Phan) purportedly overthrew the Van Lang polity,consolidated power over the local communities with the establishment ofthe Au Lac Kingdom and constructed the fortified citadel known as Co Loaas his capital (Taylor 1983: 19-21). This event significantly predatesthe documented solidification of Han control over the region, whichoccurred when Han general Ma Yuan Ma Yuanor Ma Yüan(born c. 1160/65, Qiantang, Zhejiang province—died 1225) Chinese landscape painter. Born into a family of court painters, Ma Yuan began his career under the emperor Xiaozong, became daizhao quelled a Vietnamese rebellion in AD43 and local Dongson warrioraristocrats were incorporated as a HanEmpire province (Higham 1989: 202, 290-91). At that point, a looselyimposed Han tribute system was superseded by a full Han administration(Higham 1989: 291). Compounding the uncertainties are textual accountsdescribing the overthrow of the Au Lac polity in approximately 170 BC byZhao Tuo This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhao.Zhao Tuo (Traditional Chinese: 趙佗; pinyin: Zh��o Tuō; Vietnamese: , a former Qin The Former Qin (Chinese: 前秦; Pinyin: Qi��nq��n; 351-394) was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. general, who then incorporated Co Loa's areainto the rule of the Nam Viet (or Nan Yue) polity (Pham 2004: 202).Given these conflicting historical reconstructions and reliance onimperial texts and semi-legendary accounts, archaeology is the onlymeans by which researchers can effectively test claims of pre-statewarfare, emergent complexity and early state formation. Archaeological context In archaeology, not only the context (physical location) of a discovery is a significant fact, but the formation of the context is as well. An archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. The indigenous community is recognised materially by the Dongsonculture (approximately 600 BC-AD 200), widely perceived as providing afoundation for Vietnamese identity. First recognised on the basis ofexcavations at the cemetery and settlement of Dongson, the culture isrenowned for its giant ceremonial bronze drums lavishly decorated withritual scenes and depictions of warriors (Figure 1) (Higham 2004: 58).These objects imply the presence of ranked and complex polities withlarge populations living in the highly productive agricultural areas ofthe Bac Bo region (Wheatley 1983; Tessitore 1989; Miksic 2000; Stark2006). The Dongson culture was spread over a large area of northernVietnam, and more than 70 sites have been discovered in variousenvironmental settings (Pham 2004: 197). The presence of a unifiedcultural complex across diverse ecological zones demonstratesconsiderable interaction between Dongson communities, along with thepossibility of either an overarching political structure or perhaps aloose confederation of polities. The material evidence suggests theexistence of a stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. society (Higham 1996:132-34), perhaps underthe rule of a single state (Bellwood 1992: 125). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] A Dongson drum was found within the site of Co Loa, a fortified,proto-urban citadel, thought to have been the first political centre orcapital of proto-Vietnamese civilisation (Taylor 1983: 20-23). Today,much of the site's massive earthen ramparts still remain standing,and a national festival is held there annually to commemorate the siteand its semi-legendary history. Encompassing 600ha, Co Loa'smonumental scale and architecture suggest construction by an earlystate-level polity. Although Vietnamese oral traditions assert thecapital site was founded during the third century BC, this claimrequires substantiation by scientific investigation. The Co Loa fortified site Co Loa is 17km north of present-day Hanoi across the Red River. Itssurrounding region is highly fertile, comprising 54 per cent of modernagricultural land in northern Vietnam and 70 per cent of all cropproduction (Higham 1996: 73). Material evidence from within CoLoa's ramparts and its immediate surroundings indicates acontinuous cultural sequence which includes the Phung Nguyen (c.1600-1200 BC), Dong Dau (c. 1400-1000 BC), Go Mun (c. 1000-600 BC) andDongson (c. 600 BC-AD 200) cultural phases, all of which point to theindigenous emergence of social complexity (Lai 2004; Pham 2004; Nguyen& Vu 2007). The archaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. confirms the existence ofindigenously Vietnamese or proto-Vietnamese communities livingcontinuously within Co Loa's area from as early as 2000 BC (Lai2004; Pham 2004). This is supported by archaeological data from over adozen excavated sites. Co Loa's tightly-knit system of fortifications and earthworks,along with the labour required for construction, demonstrate anintegrated system of military defence (Nguyen & Vu 2007: 174-5).These fortifications consist of three massive earthen rampart enclosuresor enceintes, river-fed moats and ditches, artificially constructedmounds and towers. The ramparts feature exterior ditches, which inancient times may have been moats connected to a central reservoirlocated on the site. This reservoir was fed by the Hoang River, which inturn was connected to the Red River. Ground and aerial surveys aerial surveysan epidemiological technique for surveying animal populations and their habitat, especially the latter, over a very wide area. Requires special techniques adapted to sensing of electronically marked animals from a distance, and infrared scanning of vegetation. show that much of the rampart enclosuresstill remain standing, though in various states of disrepair, and can bedefined as three circuits designated as inner, middle and outer (Figure2). The inner enclosure is roughly rectangular in shape and measures1.65km around its perimeter (Nguyen & Vu 2007: 173). Its wall isapproximately 5m in height, 6-12m wide on the surface and 20-30m wide atthe base (Nguyen & Vu 2007: 173). The inner wall also possesses anumber of bastions. The middle and outer walls form irregularly-shapedenclosures measuring 6.5km and 8km in circumference, respectively(Nguyen & Vu 2007: 173). It is possible that the irregular shapesstem from the natural topography, with natural hilltops beingintentionally connected to form the enclosures. In parts, the outer wallstill stands 3-4m in height and ranges from 12-20m in width, while themiddle wall measures approximately 20m wide and up to 10m in height(Nguyen & Vu 2007: 173-4). Dongson period materials have been found throughout Co Loa. In 1970an informal investigation was conducted by the Vietnamese at a collapsedportion of the outer wall revealing Dongson culture sherds stratifiedbeneath the wall (Nguyen 1970). Moreover, the outstanding Co Loa bronzedrum was excavated 500m outside the south-east corner of the inner wall(Pham 1982; Nguyen & Nguyen 1983). The drum, weighing 72kg, is thelargest recovered from the region and contained some 200 bronze objects,including 96 ploughshares For the agricultural implement, see plowshare, for the anti-nuclear group, see Trident PloughsharesThis article or section needs sourcesorreferences that appear in reliable, third-party publications. , six hoes, a chisel and a variety of axes,spearheads, daggers and arrowheads. At Cau Vuc, located just outside CoLoa's southern entrance, a hoard of about 10 000 bronze tangedprojectile projectilesomething thrown forward.projectile syringesee blow dart.projectile vomitingforceful vomiting, usually without preceding retching, in which the vomitus is thrown well forward. points was found. These artefacts suggest specialisedproduction of tools and weaponry. Since Dongson objects are also foundthroughout the region, Vietnamese researchers have identified a morespecific Co Loa culture, distinguishing it from the contemporary LateDongson of the region (Lai 2004, 2005). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] In 2004-05, the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. excavated withinthe inner wall area and several cultural layers were identified. Theearliest material remains included firing kilns, bricks, stylisedceramic roof tiles and lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" moulds for casting bronze arrowheads. Asingle charcoal sample from a suspected trash pit next to a firing kilnused to produce arrowheads yielded a radiocarbon measurement of 2190 [+or -] 35 BP (sample number 05DT.H2fl 6a; NSFArizona AMS AMS - Andrew Message System Laboratorynumber AA75513) (Pham pers. comm.). Though overlapping chronologicallywith the overall Dongson phase, these types of Co Loa artefacts aremarked by elite-level or royal characteristics and are found only withinthe Co Loa site's enclosures, further reinforcing the notion ofcentralised production and monopolisation Noun 1. monopolisation - domination (of a market or commodity) to the exclusion of othersmonopolizationdomination - social control by dominating of these materials (Pham 2004;Lai 2005). The middle wall defensive sequence In 2007-08 a new campaign of excavations was undertaken to resolvethe sequence of the middle wall at a site adjacent to the North Gate(Figure 2). These excavations cut through the whole width of the rampartand the defensive ditch outside the enclosure to the north. A 5m widetrench was excavated in 0.1m levels until reaching sterile subsoil subsoilLayer (stratum) of earth immediately below the surface soil, consisting predominantly of minerals and leached materials such as iron and aluminum compounds. Humus remains and clay accumulate in subsoil, but the teeming macroscopic and microscopic organisms that make (Figure 3). The stratification showed several layers of constructiondeposits, which could be grouped into three periods and five majorphases of construction (Table 1; Figure 4). [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The Period 1 defence: Phase 1 The earliest structure lay on sterile subsoil and consisted of aclay wall, a clay platform with a structure and ditches associated withthem (Figures 3-5). The wall extended in a straight line (in thedirection 95[degrees]E) across our excavation trench into both sections(Figure 5). The wall was built with facings of reddish clay and a coreof dark brown topsoil. The core measured 0.45-0.6m across and the wholewidth was 1.4-1.8m. The wall was visible in section to a height of some1.1 m from the surface of the sterile subsoil. The reddish clay had aslumped appearance, suggesting that the wall had been larger when firstconstructed. A ditch measuring approximately 0.5m deep and 1.3-1.5m wideran along the northern face of the wall. On the south side was anotherditch with a much gentler slope, reaching a depth of 0.85m and a widthof 2.3m. Further south was a clay platform that emerged from the westsection and ended before reaching the east section. Its northern edgeran parallel to the clay wall. The platform was surrounded by a ditch.On top of the platform was a roughly rectangular earthen structure,approximately 4.4m long and 2m wide and lying approximately 0.4m abovethe sterile subsoil. Taken together these features probably served amilitary function (Keeley pers. comm.), with the platform and itsstructure perhaps representing a guardhouse, crossbow firing platform orthe base of a watchtower. This early defensive system appears to beunrelated to the rampart that followed. It had a different alignment(95[degrees]E as opposed to 80-85[degrees]E) and was thus unlikely tohave functioned as a marking-out bank for the rampart'sconstruction. The wall and platform had suffered significant dereliction derelictionn. 1) abandoning possession, which is sometimes used in the phrase "dereliction of duty." It includes abandoning a ship, which then becomes a "derelict" which salvagers can board. before the rampart was constructed. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] The dating of the Period 1 features is mainly reliant onradiocarbon (Table 2). The artefacts encountered at this phase andsealed by the rampart were common, non-elite objects of the Dongsonculture, which did not recur in subsequent phases. On the floor of theplatform's structure were a number of Dongson potsherds, a fragmentof iron slag and a ring of charred earth. We secured two charcoalsamples from this floor, one from within the fire ring and one with thepotsherds and iron slag, which gave dates of 384-114 and 359-54 cal BC(Table 2, CS 138, 139). Ten additional charcoal samples were found withDongson sherds within the ditch surrounding the platform, sitting onsterile subsoil. The radiocarbon age range obtained was 779-56 cal BC(CS 116-8, 120-22, 135-7, 140). One high precision date (CS 136) was391-209 cal BC. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] The Period 2 defence: Phases 2-4 In the area where it was examined, the main rampart ran in agenerally east-west direction (80-85[degrees]E) and in its finalsurviving form was 4.3m in height and 26m wide at the base. There werefour phases of construction, all of earth. Although it is difficult todetermine how much time separated these major construction events, ourinterpretation is that most of the rampart (Phases 2-4) was constructedcontinuously within a relatively rapid time-span. This is because therewere no layers of natural deposition or erosion which would be expectedhad there been large temporal gaps between construction phases (Keeleypers. comm.). However, based on artefacts, there was a final Phase 5assigned to a refurbishment in a later period (see below). Construction of the main rampart began with a foundation of spoildug out from the ditch (Keeley pets. comm.). Dumps of soil, sand andclay were then deposited in layers to form a mounded, bank-like feature(Phase 2). A depression was clearly visible along the top of the Phase 2bank, suggesting its use as a pathway for walking, pulling carts andtransporting material. This path was no doubt brought into use in theconstruction of the next level of rampart, Phase 3, which was of rammedor stamped earth. This left the rampart as a whole higher and stronger,and with a flat top. Phase 4 involved another layer of dumped earth,further expanding the size of the rampart. Most of the artefacts, consisting of ceramic roof tiles and stones,were recovered from within the Phase 4 layers (approximately 1m belowthe current rampart surface) where they sloped towards both north andsouth (Figure 6), although there were far more artefacts on the southside than the north. Roof tiles and stones were also found in a ditchtowards the south, which may represent the inner edge of the rampart. Inthe north, the artefacts were also found in the defensive ditch, wherethey had probably been displaced from the top of the rampart. Thepresence of the roof tiles and stones, which are part of the Co Loaelite material culture, is still open to interpretation. One possibilityis that there was a roofed structure erected along the top of therampart to protect defenders against rain or missile attack. Anotherpossibility is the tiles were placed there intentionally to protect therampart core from erosion by tropical rain. Whatever the case, thedebris of tiles and stones seems to exist along the same stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat layer throughout both the middle and outer walls, as indicated by oursurveys at collapsed portions of the ramparts. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] The roof tiles (Figure 7) are diagnostically similar to those foundwithin the inner wall area in 2005, and some of the stones appear to bepre-forms or discarded blanks of casting moulds for bronze crossbowbolts, also similar to examples found within the inner wall area. Elevenradiocarbon dates suggest that the Period 2 rampart was underconstruction in the third century BC and remained in active use untilthe end of the millennium (Table 3; see Dating below). The defensive ditch In order to study the defensive ditch, a 5 x 46m trench was openedat the base of the rampart and excavated in 0. lm levels until sterilesoil was reached. Unfortunately, the ditch excavation was interrupted bya collapse within the trench due to heavy flooding. Hence, our currentunderstanding of the ditch is cursory and future research will benecessary for a more thorough analysis (Figure 8). The visiblestratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the consisted of 17 depositional layers, though whetherdeposition was natural or artificial is currently difficult to assess.Based on the stratigraphic evidence and the location of culturalmaterials, the ditch was approximately 10m wide at the top and V-shapedin profile. The ditch was dry when originally constructed, but may havefunctioned as both a dry ditch and a water-filled moat afterconstruction, as indicated by the presence of alluvial layers consistingof soil, clay, silt, sand and gravel (Green pets. comm.; Junker pers.comm.). The ditch's shape and function undoubtedly changed overtime, and changes may have also occurred seasonally. We suspect theditch served a defensive function, an interpretation bolstered by boththe military function of the rampart and by the V-shape of the ditch. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] A range of artefacts was recovered, from Co Loa culture at thebottom to historic Le Dynasty materials within the upper strata. Thelowest cultural layers had Co Loa roof tiles and stones, similar to theones found within the rampart excavation. Two wood charcoal samples wererecovered from the ditch excavation (Table 4). The first sample wasrecovered in association with Co Loa roof tiles found at the lowestcultural level at approximately 4m below the surface, and gave a daterange of 200 cal BC-cal AD 67. The second sample, recovered through anaugur augur:see omen. core, was just above the suspected sterile soil at 4.3m below thesurface at the bottom of the ditch's V-shape. The radiocarbon ageis 103 cal BC-cal AD 48. While these radiocarbon dates do not revealwhen the ditch was originally dug, they offer a rough chronologicalsense of when the roof tiles may have begun eroding from the rampartinto the ditch. The Period 3 defence The Phase 5 construction expanded the rampart to nearly its finalsurviving dimensions (Figure 4). The mode of construction employedmultiple, thin layers of stamped earth. Below the uppermost surface,there are stepped tiers on both exterior faces. The first tier of thesouthern interior side may have served as a parapet of some kind,allowing defenders to move unseen along the ledge while under protectionfrom potential projectile attack. The dimensions for the northernexterior face are different and may appear stepped due to naturalerosion and collapse. Artefacts of the Vietnamese Le Dynasty (c. fifteenth-sixteenthcenturies) were found within these upper layers, suggesting arefurbishment in the historical period. The Phase 5 construction layersappeared to be thin and uniform, resembling the hang-tu method ofChinese construction (Keeley pets. comm.). While Le Dynasty materialswere found, it is possible that refurbishment or amplification effortsbegan during the Nam Viet (Nan Yue) period or the Chinese colonialperiod Colonial Period may generally refer to any period in a country's history when it was subject to administration by a colonial power. Korea under Japanese rule Colonial America See alsoColonialism (beginning with the Han). Dating Most of the date ranges provided by the 12 radiocarbondeterminations for Period 1 included the period 400-350 BC, with four ofthese samples yielding somewhat earlier dates (Table 2). Given thelikelihood of residual and intrusive material, our reading of thesedates is that they probably represent ground cleared for construction inthe fourth century BC. For Period 2 (Table 3), one radiocarbon date wassecured from wood charcoal found on the interface between the Phase 2layer of clumped soil and the sterile soil beneath it of 399-206 cal BC(CS110). Dates from Phase 3 layers group between 396-170 cal BC (CS 76,88 and 111), with two high precision dates on CS 88 giving 396-165 calBC. Six radiocarbon dates were secured from wood charcoal samples foundwith the roof tiles in Phase 4 layers. These cover a range from 382BC-cal AD 2. The two radiocarbon dates from the ditch covered the span103 BC-cal AD 67 (Table 4). Again making allowances for residual andintrusive charcoal, we suspect the construction of the Period 2 rampartmay have commenced sometime in or after the third century BC, and thatit continued in existence until its disuse dis��use?n.The state of not being used or of being no longer in use.disuseNounthe state of being neglected or no longer used; neglectNoun 1. , probably in the early yearsof the first millennium AD. Period 3 (Phase 5), dated by pottery, would appear to be arefurbishment of the fifteenth--sixteenth centuries AD, althoughamplification efforts may have commenced much earlier. Overall, the combination of artefacts, contrasting buildingtechniques and radiocarbon dates currently suggest that the majority ofthe middle wall rampart was constructed by a local and indigenoussociety prior to the first century AD solidification of Han colonialcontrol. Given the timing of construction, it is possible that turmoilin China during the Warring States period Warring States periodChinese Zhangou(475–221 BC) In Chinese history, a period in which small feuding kingdoms or fiefdoms struggled for supremacy. The period was dominated by seven or more small feuding Chinese kingdoms. may have played some role inmotivating fortification fortification,system of defense structures for protection from enemy attacks. Fortification developed along two general lines: permanent sites built in peacetime, and emplacements and obstacles hastily constructed in the field in time of war. . That said, more research is needed to further refine thischronology and improve our overall understanding of the culturalhistory. For instance, while the material evidence lends support to thepossible existence of the Au Lac polity, it does not prove itunequivocally. Moreover, it is possible that the Nan Yue polity'sattacks and eventual overthrow (c. early second century BC) of the AuLac, as described in textual accounts, may have been responsible foreither precipitating rampart construction or amplifying it aftertakeover. The stamped earth technique visible within Phase 3 (Period 2) bearssome resemblance to stamped earth techniques (hang-tu) seen in parts ofancient China. The hang-tu method was often used to construct walls andfoundations for buildings at Longshan (c. 3000-1800 BC) and Shangculture (c. 1600-1046 BC) sites (Chang 1978, 1980). However, stampedearth layers at Han Chinese Han Chinesen.See Han1. sites tended to be thinly stratified anduniform in thickness, approximately 120-140mm, while the stamped earthlayers of Phase 3 were much thicker, cruder, and lacked uniformity(Keeleypers. comm.). The material record of various civilisations showsuse of a stamped earth technique, as indicated by the archaeological andethnohistoric records of southern Mesopotamian city-states, the Inka ofPeru and the Yoruba states of Africa (Trigger 2003: 566). Consequently,we do not believe that this type of construction necessarily indicatesthat the wall was a Chinese construction, although this does not excludethe possibility of Chinese influence or emulation. Interpretation and discussion The earliest features of Period 1 predate the rampart constructedin Period 2. What remains unclear is how much time separated the two.The scale of construction of the early features is more modest than whatwas to follow, implying a lower availability of labour and technicalcapacity, with perhaps a lesser scale of perceived threat. Of course,our understanding of this smaller set of defensive works is far fromcomplete, as we have only unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. a portion of it. Futureinvestigations will need to examine these features further, and shouldinvestigate whether or not similar features exist elsewhere at Co Loa.For the time being, though, the smaller fortifications represent theearliest that have been archaeologically detected anywhere withinVietnam. They also provide support for the occurrence of intra-regionalcompetition and warfare among smaller-scale, non-state societies of theRed River valley See also the Red River disambiguation page.The Red River Valley is a region in central North America that is drained by the Red River of the North. during the mid first millennium BC, suggesting thepossibility that conflict contributed to political consolidation (Carneiro pers. comm.). Throughout the region, there is ample archaeological evidence ofwarfare in the pre-Dongson and Dongson eras, including stone and bronzeweapons (Pham 2004: 199) and iconographic depictions of warriors and warcaptives on the famous Dongson bronze drums themselves (Higham 2004:58). The evidence underscores a political landscape of multiplecompeting polities, possibly chiefdom-level, during the mid firstmillennium BC wherein elites used a combination of strategies to obtaineconomic wealth and entrench en��trench? also in��trenchv. en��trenched, en��trench��ing, en��trench��esv.tr.1. To provide with a trench, especially for the purpose of fortifying or defending.2. political power. Military power andcoercive force (Magnetism) the power or force which in iron or steel produces a slowness or difficulty in imparting magnetism to it, and also interposes an obstacle to the return of a bar to its natural state when active magnetism has ceased. , especially after the introduction of bronze weapons,thus constituted one means for consolidating power within a wider causalpackage. Because of its strategic location near the Red River, elitesliving on the Red River plain were also probably able to accumulateconsiderable wealth and political currency through the exchange ofbronze prestige goods within an interregional in��ter��re��gion��al?adj.Of, involving, or connecting two or more regions: interregional migration; interregional banking.trade network thatconnected southern China, northern Vietnam and parts of Southeast Asiathrough riverine riv��er��ine?adj.1. Relating to or resembling a river.2. Located on or inhabiting the banks of a river; riparian: "Members of a riverine tribe ... systems (Allard 1999; Stark 2006: 414; Kim 2009). Thesefactors, combined with the agricultural productivity Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural inputs to agricultural outputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight, their varying densities make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. of the area,afforded tremendous opportunities for certain societal segments togenerate politically exploitable surpluses (Junker pets. comm.). Inaddition, materialised ideology may have been used as part of powerstrategies that reconfigured sociopolitical so��ci��o��po��li��ti��cal?adj.Involving both social and political factors.sociopoliticalAdjectiveof or involving political and social factors systems (DeMarrais et al.1996). The iconography of Dongson drums encapsulated the existingsociopolitical order by depicting and codifying the exclusive rituals ofDongson elites. This provides a context for the massive scale of Co Loa'sawe-inspiring ramparts, which would have also served an ideologicalfunction, displaying the level of authority present and its ability tomobilise labour and harness resources. Overall, Co Loa's rampartssuggest the presence of significant centralised authority which probablyrequired military force to obtain and keep. As such, reconstructing thesite's history can thus inform ongoing discussions regardingemergent complexity and the origins of Vietnamese civilisation. In Southeast Asia, large enclosed and moated settlements dating tothe first millennium BC have also been found in Thailand and Cambodia,although the function and chronology are not altogether clear for manyof them (Moore 1992; Higham 2002). Several such sites are distributed inthe Mun River valley, such as Non Dia, Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao(Higham 2002: 193-204) and also within the Chi Valley, such as Non Chaiand Ban Chiang Ban Chiang (Thai บ้านเชียง) is an archeological site located in Nong Han district, Udon Thani Province, Thailand. It is listed in the UNESCO world heritage list since 1992. Hian (Higham 1996: 214-5). Elsewhere, numerous red soilcircular earthwork earth��work?n.1. An earthen embankment, especially one used as a fortification. See Synonyms at bulwark.2. Engineering Excavation and embankment of earth.3. sites of south-east Cambodia and southern Vietnam,such as Krek 52/62, also possessed embankments and moats (Albrecht etal. 2000: 43). Another example, the late prehistoric site of Khao SamKaeo (c. fourth-second century BC) in the upper Thai-Malay Peninsula,possesses a fortification system of embankments and ditches that bearsome resemblance to those found at Co Loa (Bellina-Pryce & Silapanth2006). In the case of Khao Sam Kaeo, the complex earthwork system,combined with specialised craft production and exchange, also hint atthe presence of a significant early polity (Bellina-Pryce &Silapanth 2006: 286). Conclusion Undoubtedly, much more research and data are needed to augment ourunderstanding of the prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to of Co Loa and the Red River plain. Forinstance, a consideration of individual strategies and behaviour, andtheir effects on social structure, would require data on households andsettlements, which are currently lacking for all of Southeast Asia(Bellwood & Glover 2006:11). Examining Dongson land use andagricultural development strategies could help identify incipienturbanism (Kealhofer & Grave 2008:201). A regional site survey couldalso help determine whether or not a settlement size hierarchy isdiscernible. However, the investigations at Co Loa, compared with the currentlyavailable evidence of written sources and archaeology, do indicate thata local and indigenous state-like polity had emerged in the Bac Boregion during the Dongson period and prior to Han colonisation. Thesheer size and scale of Co Loa and its monumental fortificationsstrongly suggest a high degree of political centralisation was necessaryto plan construction and mobilise the requisite resources. Prior to CoLoa, the region's communities were likely already accustomed toconstruct communal works, even if small-scale (e.g. ditches, dikes,walkways) (Larew 2003: 40-41). However, nothing on the scale of Co Loahad ever been attempted before, and the corvee cor��v��e?n.1. Labor exacted by a local authority for little or no pay or instead of taxes and used especially in the maintenance of roads.2. A day of unpaid work required of a vassal by a feudal lord. labour necessary for itsconstruction must have required a strong military force and significantcentralised, state-like control (Larew 2003: 41). Furthermore, thelabour requirements strongly imply a high population density. A largepopulation would have been sustainable due to the significant rice paddyagricultural potential of the Red River valley region, which todayproduces several crop yields annually. Despite the evidence of continuous, in situ cultural developmentduring the late Neolithic and early Metal Age, the Red Riverplain's communities did not live in a vacuum. It is highly likelythat two-way influence between Bac Bo societies and their Chinesecounterparts occurred before and during the Dongson period (Allard 1999:83). While emergent local complexity is not directly attributable to Hancolonisation, first-millennium BC interregional contact and exchangebetween Dongson communities and stratified societies of neighbouringregions (such as contemporaneous Dian societies of Chinas Yunnan area,Sa Huynh communities of central Vietnam and upland societies to the westand southwest in parts of Laos, Cambodia and Thailand) almost certainlycontributed to a process of reciprocal complexity (Kim 2009). Given thelikelihood that the bulk of the Co Loa rampart was constructed duringthe third century BC, at the tail end of the Warring States period andduring the period of Chinese unification under Qin imperial power, it isconceivable that an external foreign threat may have also influencedpolitical trends in the Bac Bo region, in addition to local,intra-regional competition (Higham 2002:170). Further, there are signsof Chinese influence or emulation in some of the cultural elements foundat Co Loa, including the stamped earth technique, bronze crossbow bolts,and roof tiles. Elsewhere, Larew (2003) examines the possible transferof military technologies from Warring States China to the Red Riverplain and Co Loa. Future research would be well served by continuing toexplore the impact of the powerful Chinese states to the north on Bac Bosocieties, even before the latter came to be fully colonised by the Han,as well as interaction with neighbouring societies throughout SoutheastAsia. Acknowledgements The Co Loa defences project was co-directed by Dr Nam Kim and DrLai Van Toi and involved additional archaeologists from both theUniversity of Illinois at Chicago This article is about the University of Illinois at Chicago. For other uses, see University of Illinois at Chicago (disambiguation).UIC participates in NCAA Division I Horizon League competition as the UIC Flames in several sports, most notably Basketball. (Drs Laura Junker, Lawrence Keeley andDebra Green), the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology (Dr Trinh Hoang Hiepand Mr Nguyen Dang dang?interj.Used to express dissatisfaction or annoyance.adv. & adj.Damn.tr.v. danged, dang��ing, dangsTo damn.n. Cuong), and the Conservation Center for the Co Loaand Hanoi Citadels (Ms. Nguyen Thi Thuy). We would like to thank theAmerican Council of Learned Societies, the Henry Luce Noun 1. Henry Luce - United States publisher of magazines (1898-1967)Henry Robinson Luce, Luce Foundation, theAmerican Philosophical Society, the George Franklin Dales Foundation andthe National Science Foundation (Award No. 0915410) for funding thatmade this research possible. Radiocarbon dates were analysed at theNSF-AMS Laboratory at the University of Arizona (body, education) University of Arizona - The University was founded in 1885 as a Land Grant institution with a three-fold mission of teaching, research and public service. . We would also like tothank the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, the Conservation Center forthe Co Loa and Hanoi Citadels, the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciencesand the Vietnamese Ministry of Sports, Culture, and Tourism. The imageof the Co Loa bronze drum was provided courtesy of the Vietnam SocialScience Publishing House. The authors are especially grateful for constructive comments andquestions provided for an earlier version of this paper by FrancisAllard, Ian Glover, Charles Higham There are several notable persons named Charles Higham Charles Higham, British archaeologist Charles Higham (born 1931), biographer and poet , Laura Junker, Lawrence Keeley andTzeHuey Chiou-Peng as well as Martin Carver Martin Oswald Hugh Carver FSA BSc (London), Dip.Archaeol. (Durham), MIFA, is Professor of Archaeology at the University of York, England, and director of the Sutton Hoo Research Project and a leading exponent of new methods in excavation and survey. and the editorial staff ofAntiquity. Any errors in the paper are the responsibility of theauthors. Finally, we wish to thank the people of the Co Loa Commune. Received: 14 September 2009; Accepted: 23 November 2009; Revised:19 January 2010 References ALBRECHT, G., M.N. HAIDLE, C. SIVLENG, H.L. HONG, H. SOPHADY, H.THAN, M. SOMEAPHYVATH, S. KADA, S. SOPHAL, T. 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Berkeley (CA): University ofCalifornia Press "UC Press" redirects here, but this is also an abbreviation for University of Chicago PressUniversity of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. . TESSITORE, J. 1989. View from the East Mountain: an examination ofthe relationship between the Dong Son and Lake Tien civilizations in thefirst millennium BC. Asian Perspectives 28(1): 31-44. TRIGGER, B. 2003. Understanding early civilizations. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. WHEATLEY, P. 1983. Nagara and commandery: origins of SoutheastAsian urban traditions (University of Chicago, Department of Geography,Research Paper 207-8). Chicago (IL): Department of Geography, Universityof Chicago. Nam C. Kim (1), Lai Van Toi (2) & Trinh Hoang Hiep (2) (1) Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Madison “University of Wisconsin” redirects here. For other uses, see University of Wisconsin (disambiguation).A public, land-grant institution, UW-Madison offers a wide spectrum of liberal arts studies, professional programs, and student activities. ,5240 W.H. Sewell Social Science Building, Madison, WI 53706, USA (Email:nckim2@wisc.edu) (2) Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, 61 Phan Chu Trinh Phan Chu Trinh (His name has no tones, this is a correct spelling) also known as Phan Chau Trinh (1872 - 1926) was a famous early 20th century Vietnamese nationalist. He also used the alias Tay Hồ. He sought to end France's brutal occupation of Vietnam. , Hanoi,VietnamTable 1. Five phases of construction of the middle wallenclosure, Co Loa. MaxPhase Construction height Width Date1 Clay wall and 1m+ 1.8m c. 4th century BC platform2 Dumped earth 2m 17m c. 3th century BC3 Thick layers of 2.5m 24m rammed earth4 Dumped earth 3m 24-25m c. 1st century AD5 Thin layers of 4m 26m 15-16th century AD rammed earthTable 2. Radiocarbon ages for charcoal found with Dongsonpotsherds on the floor of the platform structure and in the ditchof the platform mound. Period 1, Phase 1 (calibrated to Reimer etal. 2004). Calibrated CalibratedSample no. Radiocarbon age (l[sigma]) (2[sigma])(From thestructurefloor)07TTH1CS138 2150 [+ or -] 43 BP 351-111 BC 359-54 BC07TTH1CS139 2186 [+ or -] 44 BP 358-191 BC 384-114 BC(From the ditch)07TTH1CS116 2365 [+ or -] 52 BP 520-387 BC 751-260 BC07TTH1CS117 2446 [+ or -] 83 BP 749-410 BC 779-398 BC07TTH1CS118 2392 [+ or -] 51 BP 704-397 BC 752-387 BC07TTH1CS120 2327 [+ or -] 52 BP 506-236 BC 727-207 BC07TTH1CS121 2196 [+ or -] 31 BP 356-201 BC 369-181 BC07TTH1CS122 2205 [+ or -] 31 BP 358-204 BC 377-197 BC07TTHICS135 2154 [+ or -] 43 BP 353-113 BC 360-56 BC07TTHICS136 * 2251 [+ or -] 22 BP 385-234 BC 391-209 BC07TTH1CS137 2192 [+ or -] 33 BP 356-199 BC 370-174 BC07TTH1CS140 2282 [+ or -] 30 BP 397-259 BC 402-211 BC* Sample randomly selected for high-precision analysis (multiplerun) and weighted average shown here.Table 3. Radiocarbon ages for charcoal found within the MiddlePeriod rampart wall. Period 2, Phases 2-4 (calibrated to Reimeret al. 2004). Calibrated CalibratedSample no. Phase Radiocarbon age (1[sigma]) (2[sigma])07TTH1CS110 2 2264 [+ or -] 39 BP 392-233 BC 399-206 BC07TTHlCS88 * 3 2253 [+ or -] 39 BP 389-215 BC 396-204 BC07TTH1CS111 3 2234 [+ or -] 41 BP 380-210 BC 389-203 BC07TTHlCS88 * 3 2184 [+ or -] 34 BP 356-192 BC 375-165 BC07TTHlCS76 3 2187 [+ or -] 33 BP 356-196 BC 370-170 BC07TTHICS41 4 2184 [+ or -] 43 BP 357-184 BC 382-154 BC07TTH1CS69 4 2170 [+ or -] 33 BP 353-173 BC 363-113 BC07TTHlCS70 4 2139 [+ or -] 33 BP 344-111 BC 353-54 BC07TTHICS9 4 2136 [+ or -] 44 BP 347-93 BC 357-46 BC07TTHlCS63 4 2116 [+ or -] 43 BP 198-59 BC 353-4 BC07TTHICS50 4 2093 [+ or -] 43 BP 168-54 BC 345 BC AD 2* Sample randomly selected for high-precision analysis (multiple run).Table 4. Radiocarbon ages for charcoal found within the ditch ofthe Middle Period rampart wall (calibrated to Reimer et al.2004). Radiocarbon Calibrated CalibratedSample no. age (1[sigma]) (2[sigma])07TTH1CS108 2030 [+ or -] 52 BP 174 BC-AD 72 103 BC AD 4807TTH1CS127 2050 [+ or -] 110 BP 200 BC-AD 67 380 BC-AD 208