9. Orchids as a catalyst for conservation by the local communities of Danau Sentarum.

9. Orchids as a catalyst for conservation by the local communities of Danau Sentarum. Conservation is often seen as a threat to people's rights andaccess to resources, and material development (e.g., infrastructure,industries) appears to governments and most local people as the only wayto improve their welfare. Consequently, conservation and developmenthave been placed in opposition. This situation prevails in DanauSentarum National Park (DSNP DSNP Digital Signal Noise ProcessingDSNP Danau Sentarum National Park (Borneo)DSNP Digital Synchronization Network Plan ) (Heri et al., this volume), as well as inmany other protected areas around the globe (Chatty chat��ty?adj. chat��ti��er, chat��ti��est1. Inclined to chat; friendly and talkative.2. Full of or in the style of light informal talk: a chatty letter. and Colchester 2002;Veit et al. 2008). To bridge the gap between conservation anddevelopment, economists have developed many concepts, includingecological economics Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. and payments for environmental services. In our view, however, development can be designed to matchconservation objectives and need not be narrowly seen as materialdevelopment only, and conservation can also be designed to providelong-term benefits for the people. This concept is similar to theRights-Based Approach (see Campese et al. 2009). DSNP has greatpotential to test this view. Its natural beauty, high biodiversity,traditional fishery and local people's cultures are treasures thatcan be managed sustainably for the benefit of local people. One of itsnatural wonders with the most potential is the wild orchid. Based on thepark's geographical and biophysical characteristics, at thebeginning of our study we predicted that scores of wild orchid speciesare living in the park. Yet they had not been studied in detail, and thepotential of orchid conservation for the benefit of local people hadnever been explored. Previous studies have discovered many new speciesin the park, with the notable exception of Orchidaceae. There were only13 orchid species listed in Giesen (2000), who did a vegetationinventory there. This study has two interlinked objectives: first, to identify andrecord wild orchid species in DSNP and surrounding areas, and second, toexplore how orchid conservation might benefit local people. Part of alarger project conducted by CIFOR CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research (Indonesia)and Riak Bumi Foundation since 2005,we aimed in this work to promote good governance The terms governance and good governance are increasingly being used in development literature. Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). of areas protectedunder decentralization de��cen��tral��ize?v. de��cen��tral��ized, de��cen��tral��iz��ing, de��cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To distribute the administrative functions or powers of (a central authority) among several local authorities. and to look for conservation schemes that couldimprove local people's livelihoods and provide long-term benefits(see Yuliani et ai. 2008a). Orchids: Importance and Threats Orchids are significant scientific, conservation, economic, andgenetic resources. Orchidaceae is the largest family of flowering plants(Angiosperma), comprising 796 genera and approximately 17,500 species(Allaby 2001). (1) Based on DNA DNA:see nucleic acid. DNAor deoxyribonucleic acidOne of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. studies, orchids are an ancient familywhose most recent common ancestor The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of any set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all organisms in the group are directly descended. The term is most frequently used of humans. lived in the Late Cretaceous Late Cretaceous (100mya - 65mya) refers to the second half of the Cretaceous Period, named after the famous white chalk cliffs of southern England, which date from this time. Rocks deposited during the Late Cretaceous Period are referred to as the Upper Cretaceous Series. , 76million to 84 million years ago (Ramirez et al. 2007). National,regional, and international orchid societies actively promoteconservation of these plants, conduct studies, and build databases. On the economic side, wild orchids command a high price in domesticand international markets, and orchid export is a big business. Forexample, one Bornean endemic orchid, Bulbophyllum beccarii Bulbophyllum beccarii is one of the most spectacular and remarkable members of the whole Bulbophyllum genus and indeed the Orchidaceae. It is by far the largest species in the genus and one of the largest in the family. , which isprotected by Indonesian law, trades illegally in Indonesian cities forprices between IDR IDRIn currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Indonesian Rupiah.Notes:The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion. 600,000 and 1,500,000 (US$60 to $150). (2) High selling prices have encouraged overexploitation and smuggling,particularly since many wild orchids cannot be cultivated in nurseries,due to environmental conditions in nurseries differing from those in thewild. In one of several cases of large-scale wild orchid smuggling fromIndonesia's forests, 1,500 lady's-slipper orchids wereillegally exported from Indonesia to the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. in the early1990s; the perpetrators were caught by U.S. authorities (Trade andEnvironment Database, no date). In another case, in 2007, smugglerscarrying 332 kg of wild orchid clusters from Maluku were detected at aport in the province (Holle 2007). Wild orchids are a genetic resource used to produce new strains andparticular characteristics, such as long-lasting flowers. Orchids alsohave cultural significance and have been appreciated for centuries:orchid motifs were worked in gold on Javanese historical ornaments(Hasrinuksmo 2004), and the blades on Indonesian keris (ceremonialknives) from the Kediri Kingdom (1042-1222) were decorated with orchidshapes thought to be Vanda batmanii or Vandopsis lisosiloides(Suronegoro 1984). The cultural significance of orchids often escapesthe attention of conservationists, policy makers, researchers, andcommunity-facilitating NGOs. A lack of understanding among local stakeholders about the manyvalues of wild orchids and the importance of their conservation has ledto overexploitation and smuggling, most often by outsiders, leaving noor very few benefits for local communities. Forest-dwelling villagers inJambi are paid only US$0.75 for selling two or three stems of the giantorchid The Giant Orchid, Grammatophyllum speciosum, also called Tiger Orchid, Sugar Cane Orchid or Queen of the Orchids, is the world's largest orchid. It is native to New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia, growing in crotches of large trees on exposed areas of the lowland tropical (3) (Grammatophyllum speciosum), whose price in the Indonesianornamental plant An ornamental plant is a plant that is grown for its ornamental qualities, rather than for its commercial or other value. The term is often abbreviated to ornamental (usually as a noun) when used in horticultural contexts. market is around US$10 to $20. Orchids growing on treetrunks and bark are worth US$750 to $1,500, but the trees are cut downand burned, as are the orchids, from a lack of understanding of theirvalue. The large-scale conversion of forests to other land uses, such asmonoculture mon��o��cul��ture?n.1. The cultivation of a single crop on a farm or in a region or country.2. A single, homogeneous culture without diversity or dissension. plantations, intensive farming Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of capital or labour relative to land area.[1][2] , and mining, could even leadto the extinction of certain species. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Orchid Biology Orchids are cosmopolitan (Arditti 1992), found in almost every typeof habitat ranging from the tropics tropics,also called tropical zone or torrid zone, all the land and water of the earth situated between the Tropic of Cancer at lat. 23 1-2°N and the Tropic of Capricorn at lat. 23 1-2°S. and temperate zones to the fringesof the Arctic circle Arctic Circle,imaginary circle on the surface of the earth at 66 1-2°N latitude, i.e., 23 1-2° south of the North Pole. It marks the northernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the winter solstice (about Dec. and places close to Antarctica. Most genera andspecies, however, are found in moist places in the tropics. The majorityof orchid species are epiphytic ep��i��phyte?n.A plant, such as a tropical orchid or a staghorn fern, that grows on another plant upon which it depends for mechanical support but not for nutrients. Also called aerophyte, air plant. (adhering to trees), with a small numberbeing terrestrial (growing on the ground). Epiphytic orchids can survivewith little precipitation or even in drought conditions "Drought Conditions" is episode 126 of The West Wing. PlotSenator Rafferty, a new presidential candidate garnered much media attention with a ground-breaking speech about health care. because theytake moisture from the surrounding air and store water reserves in theirpseudobulbs, containers that form in the stems. Orchid roots have asymbiotic relationship symbiotic relationship (sim´bīot´ik),n in implantology, that relationship assumed by an implant and the natural teeth to which it has been splinted. with fungi (mycorrhiza mycorrhizaProduct of close association between the branched, tubular filaments (hyphae) of a fungus and the roots of higher plants. The association usually enhances the nutrition of both the host plant and the fungal symbiont. ), which helps them absorbnutrients from the surrounding environment. Orchids are divided into two groups, based on their growthpatterns: monopodial and simpodial. Monopodial orchids grow from asingle main stem and continue to grow in one direction. Simpodialorchids have limited growth, and the next growth stage is to the side,through a stem shoot. Some orchid species have been used as medicinal plants medicinal plants,plants used as natural medicines. This practice has existed since prehistoric times. There are three ways in which plants have been found useful in medicine. . The firstpublications on Indonesian plants, in the 1800s, describe most orchidsas medicinal plants rather than ornamental plants. On Java, forinstance, Platanthera suzane has been used as a remedy for skin ailments(Suryowinoto 1982). In Jambi, the giant orchid Grammatophyllum speciosumis used as a jaundice jaundice(jôn`dĭs, jän`–), abnormal condition in which the body fluids and tissues, particularly the skin and eyes, take on a yellowish color as a result of an excess of bilirubin. medicine, and in Poso, powdered orchid seeds areused to cover old and new wounds. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Area Description Danau Sentarum is a wetland comprising 83 seasonal lakesinterconnected with swamp, swamp forest, and small islands (Jeanes1997). The lakes are submerged for eight to 10 months a year, and dryfor the remaining two to four months. Relative humidity relative humidityn.The ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air at a specific temperature to the maximum amount that the air could hold at that temperature, expressed as a percentage. in the regionranges from 40 to 95 percent, average annual rainfall is around 3,900 mmin the park and 4,500 to 6,000 mm in the surrounding hills andmountains, which constitute the park's water catchment areas(Giesen and Aglionby 2000); midday air temperatures range from30[degrees] to 36[degrees]C in the shade (Jeanes 1997). These conditionsare favorable to the growth of wild orchids. Giesen (2000) categorized wetland vegetation in DSNP as dwarf swampforest, stunted swamp forest, tall swamp forest, riparian riparianadj. referring to the banks of a river or stream. (See: riparian rights) forest, hillforest, heath forest, secondary shrub, burned area regrowth Re`growth´n. 1. The act of regrowing; a second or new growth.The regrowthof limbs which had been cut off.- A. B. Buckley. , floatingmeadow, and lakebed vegetation. This classification of vegetation typeswas also used by Dennis et al. (2000) in her research. Our original planwas to document the orchid species in each of these vegetation types,but further investigation led us to identify 10 different categoriesmore relevant to orchid growth, as follows4: Rocky hilltop. The peak of Tapah Hill (elevation 330 m) has extremeconditions (5): a rocky substrate low in nutrients, 100 percent sunlightin some places, high winds and heavy rain with no trees to reduce itsintensity. Dwarf trees grow between rocks. Levels of human activity inthis ecosystem are lower than in the other ecosystem types. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Hill forest. This forest grows on gradients of 30[degrees] to40[degrees], dominated by large trees with diameters of more than lmeter (Yuliani et al. no date). The forests in the hills have escapedlogging because their steep slopes make them inaccessible. Lightintensity is low, and sunlight does not reach the forest floor. Levelsof human activity are relatively low because of the distance fromhabitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas . Some hills are protected by customary rules because they areconsidered sacred or subject to landslides and erosion. Lowland forest. The lowland forest (elevation about 20 m) remainsflood free throughout the year and is dominated by dipterocarps(tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are rainforests generally found near the equator. They are common in Asia, Africa, South America, Central America, and on many of the Pacific Islands. trees). Levels of human activity vary from low tomedium. Some of the lowland forests in our study were abandoned loggingareas (both legal and illegal), but succession has taken place and theirconditions are similar to forest where no logging has occurred. In someplaces where trees were cut down, or on former logging bicycle trails,(6) sunlight reaches the forest floor for a few hours a day. Swamp forest. This type of forest comprises various tree speciesfrom clumps to giant trees. Sunlight intensity is low and levels ofhuman activity vary from low to moderate. Dwarf swamp forest. Also called putat swamp forest, this type ismarked by clumps of vegetation in the middle of lakes and dominated byputat trees (Barringtonia acutangula Barringtonia acutangula is a species of Barringtonia native to coastal wetlands in southern Asia and northern Australasia, from Afghanistan east to the Philippines and Queensland.[1] References1. , also known as freshwater mangrove mangrove,large tropical evergreen tree, genus Rhizophora, that grows on muddy tidal flats and along protected ocean shorelines. Mangroves are most abundant in tropical Asia, Africa, and the islands of the SW Pacific. ,Indian oak or Indian putat), which grow 3 to 5 m above the swamp bed andare partly buried during the rainy season. Levels of human activity arerelatively low, but the conditions are unfavorable for orchids, withdirect sunlight and rainy season flooding. Riparian forest. Similar to swamp forest, riparian forest has moresunlight and more open places. Levels of human activity are moderate tohigh. Garden. These areas are planted with rubber and various local fruittrees such as rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) and cempedak (Artocarpusinteger). Sunlight is less than 50 percent. Levels of human activity arequite high and include the clearing of plants deemed weeds. Dry farming dry farming,farming system adopted in areas having an annual rainfall of approximately 15 to 20 in. (38.1–50.8 cm)—with much of the rainfall in the spring and early summer—where irrigation is impractical. land. This land is usually planted with dryland riceand crops such as chili pepper and eggplant (aubergine (jargon) aubergine - A secret term used to refer to computers in the presence of computerphobic third parties. ). Sunlightreaches 100 percent. Levels of human activity are extremely high, withclearing and preparing land for planting by burning and weeding. Open areas. These places include former illegal sawmill sawmill,installation or facility in which cut logs are sawed into standard-sized boards and timbers. The saws used in such an installation are generally of three types: the circular saw, which consists of a disk with teeth around its edge; the band saw, which sites,ex-logging camps, log landings, old logging roads and recently clearedroads. They receive 100 percent sunlight, and rain falls straight to theground, causing runoff and high levels of erosion. Levels of humanactivity are low to moderate in the former logging areas, and high onrecently constructed roads. Lakes and waterways. These areas are inundated with water eight to12 months a year. No literature has mentioned the presence ofhydrophytic orchids, but Danau Sentarum's unique ecosystemsprompted us to consider the possibility of there being hydrophytic,terrestrial, epiphytic and saprophytic saprophyticpertaining to saprophyte. orchid species that are adaptedto flood conditions. Methods Research Methods Orchid documentation and identification were carried out bycruising the 10 land cover types. We chose the cruising method becauseorchids have an uneven distribution. An original research objective wasto estimate orchid density by habitat type, but this was incompatiblewith the objective of documenting as many species as possible: theselection of locations with many orchids would compromise any densitycalculations. Cruising took place in sites deemed to represent orchid ecosystemsas described above and involved circling lake edges and exploring thenetworks of small rivers where we thought orchids would be growing. Weconducted field research from February 2006 to December 2008 in 11locations: Piam, Enggang, Patung, Kedebuk, Senara, Sumpit, Tapah Hill,Engkarit, Baung, Ketutung and Siluk. (7) The core team consisted of a wild orchid specialist (Prasetyo), acommunity facilitator (Zuikifli), a field guide and community memberswho were orchid lovers. In accordance with the documentation objective,all the orchid species we found were recorded and photographed, and anyunidentified specimens not in flower were taken to Bogor and kept untilthey flowered. Species documentation involved noting the genus andnearest possible species and photographing all plant parts, butparticularly the flowers. Most identification was done in the field.However, if further identification was required, specimens were taken toBogor to await flowering, and identification and cross-checks of speciesand synonyms took place in the Orchid Division of the Bogor BotanicalGardens The Bogor Botanical Gardens are located 60 km south of the capital of Jakarta in Bogor, Indonesia. The botanical gardens are situated in the city center of Bogor and adjoin the Istana Bogor (Presidential Palace). and involved studies of literature (Vermeulen 1991; Chan et al.1994; Wood and Cribb 1994; Wood 1997, 2004; Siregar et al. 2006) anddiscussions with wild orchid experts. Species identification also occurred outside the orchid expedition;the team monitored learning processes and changes in hamlets wherestudies and training had already taken place. Each visit brought morespecies. Villagers who had had training would report each new speciesthey found, including several they had saved from flooded areas. Training and Social Intervention Methods The umbrella framework of our research was to discover conservationapproaches beneficial to communities by using participatory actionresearch Action Research or Participatory action research has emerged in recent years as a significant methodology for intervention, development and change within communities and groups. It is now promoted and implemented by many international development agencies and university programs CCAR, as (PAR). We had two functions: as facilitators of learningprocesses and as researchers observing processes (Yuliani et al. 2008a). Training was an important entry point for involving remotecommunities in orchid conservation. Our aims were to improve theirknowledge and skills in identifying and caring for local orchids and toconserve the orchids while generating long-term benefits for thecommunities. Prior to training, villagers were generally unaware of thehigh value of orchids to people all over the world. Orchids weresometimes left on trees that were about to be removed and then crushed,burned or destroyed by bulldozers during road and large-scale plantationdevelopment. Training was conducted in two ways. First, we invited peopleinterested in learning about orchids to join the fieldwork for speciesidentification and documentation. In this way, our research ran inparallel with training for communities on recognizing species andunderstanding the environmental conditions required by each species. Ifepiphytic orchids had fallen to the ground or into the water, forexample, local people replanted and maintained them in their hamlets,where they could be used in species identification training. Second, we offered training in settlement areas to involve morecommunity members in orchid cultivation, using materials commonly foundaround the villages and places with the light intensity and humidityfavorable to orchid growth. We also taught people how to plant orchidseedlings that were grown in bottles (8). The objective was to allowcommunities to learn the complex and different cultivation systems usedinternationally so that they would have the necessary expertise toconserve the orchids in their region. Training took place in four Iban Dayak villages (Piam, Kedebuk,Patung and Enggang) and one Malay village This is a museum in Singapore. For description of Malay villages, see kampong.The Malay Village (Malay : Kampung Melayu) is a museum in Geylang, Singapore where they showcases the life of the Malays who used to live in the area before , Sumpit. (9) Each village hadaround 20 participants, adults and children, with an equal balance ofmen and women--important to help ensure equity among social groups inacquiring information, knowledge and new skills. Involving children wasalso an important strategy, since they are the decision-makers of thefuture and are highly motivated to learn. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] A community can carry out a self-organized movement if it believesin the values and benefits of that movement. For that reason we alsoresearched what benefits communities could secure from efforts toconserve orchids and their habitats. Here we interpret benefits not justfrom an economic viewpoint, but also from cultural, health, and learningopportunity perspectives. Participatory research and social interventionwere undertaken in parallel, and focused on potential (or assets) usingan asset-based paradigm. So that communities gained in self-respect andwere willing to encourage change without depending on facilitators, weused the appreciative inquiry Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a organizational development process or philosophy that engages individuals within an organizational system in its renewal, change and focused performance.Appreciative Inquiry was developed by David Cooperrider of Case Western Reserve University. approach developed by Cooperrider andSrivastva (1987). Outcomes We found that the Danau Sentarum wetlands are highly rich in orchidspecies. During the two-year study period, we identified 138 orchidspecies from 47 genera (see Appendix 1). The most prevalent genera wereBulbophyllum (29 species), Dendrobium (22 species) and Eria (11species). We also found species of high value in international tradefrom the following genera: Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Dendrobium,Dimorphorchis, Grammatophylum, Phalaenopsis, Taenia Taenia/Tae��nia/ (te��ne-ah) a genus of tapeworms.Taenia echinococ��cus? Echinococcus granulosus. , Spathoglottis andVanda. Terrestrial orchids encountered were from nine genera: Arundina,Bromheadia, Claderia, Nephelaphyllum, Neuwedia, Macodes, Plocoglottis,Spathoglottis and Taenia, and epiphytes were from 38 genera: Adenoncos,Acriopsis, Agerostophyllum, Appendicula, Brachypeza, Bulbophyllum,Claderia, Cleissostoma, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Dendrochillum,Dilosia, Dimorphorchis, Diplocaulobium, Dipodium, Epigenium, Eria,Flikingeria, Grammatophyllum, Kingidium, Liparis, Oberonia,Phallaenopsis, Polidota, Plocoglottis, Pomatocalpa, Renanthera,Robiqueta, Sarcanthus, Thaenopyllum, Thecopus, Thecosthele, Theleasis,Trixspermum, Trichoglottis, Trichotosia and Vanda. We also discoveredone unidentified species of saprophytic orchid, and suspect there aremany others in DSNP, since saprophytic orchids are only visible when inflower. The abundance of orchid species in DSNP was apparent from theadditional numbers encountered on each field trip, as shown in Figure 4.Fieldwork aimed specifically at identifying and documenting orchidsinvolved four trips (1-4). Though the next three trips (5-7) focused onproviding training and facilitation, new species continued to bediscovered. We believe that intensive fieldwork will continue to uneartheven more species. The following sections describe our findings in each ecosystemtype, in order of the number of orchid species (see Figure 5). Lowland Forest Lowland forest has more orchid species--primarily terrestrialorchids--than the other ecosystem types, despite its sometimes-mediumlevels of human activity. Epiphytic orchids (seeds and adult plants)that fall to the forest floor also survive and grow here, even inlogged-over lowland forest where succession has taken place (oldsecondary forest). The chance of survival is much lower if epiphytesfall in a swamp forest. Examples of epiphytic orchids that fell to theforest floor and survived are the giant orchids Grammatophyllumspeciosum, Araehnis, Liparis, Polidota, Bulbophyllum and Dendrobiumscundum. These species are sunlight-loving epiphytes but can survivearound bicycle trails. The bodies and leaves of epiphytic orchids thatfall to the forest floor bend toward sunlight, and the forest canopy ismore open around the trails. These orchid species proved highlyadaptable, able to survive even in areas where selective logging hastaken place. Swamp Forest and Riparian Forest Swamp forest and riparian forest also have relatively high numbersof species, with sometimes more than 10 species found on a single tree.The light intensity, humidity and average air temperatures in theseforests are favorable for orchids. However, the terrestrial andsaprophytic orchids were absent because these two ecosystems are floodedduring the rainy season, with water depths fluctuating between 20 and400 cm following rainfall, and epiphytic orchids that fall from treesdie when submerged. Studies in swamp forest and riparian forest duringthe rainy season revealed differences from studies conducted during thedry season. In the dry season we often discovered epiphytic orchids thathad fallen to the ground when their host branches snapped. These orchidshad adapted by pointing upward to seek sunlight (positive phototaxis phototaxis/pho��to��tax��is/ (-tak��sis) the movement of cells and microorganisms in response to light.phototac��tic pho��to��tax��isn. )and opposing gravity. Their efforts to survive came to an end, however,with the arrival of the rainy season and the ensuing floods. Hill Forest Fewer orchid species were found in hill forest, even though hillforests are more protected from human activity. Many epiphytic orchidspecies grow at the tops of trees, however, and thus were out of sight.During a hill forest study we discovered a large downed tree withseveral species of epiphytic orchids on its upper branches. This findingsuggested that many other epiphytic orchids live unseen, seekingsunlight in the uppermost branches of trees. It also explained why wefound fewer orchids in these relatively undisturbed forests than in themore disturbed lowland forests. Hill forest is relatively dark because its large trees stopsunlight from penetrating to the forest floor. The low light intensityprecludes terrestrial orchids except for the few species that requirelittle light, such as Macodes, Nephelaphyllum pulcrum and Taeniapaucifolia, or can adapt to shade, including Filkingeria andBulbophyllum spp. Individuals that have adapted have thinner bodies anddarker leaves and stems than specimens of the same species that livewith more light. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] Rocky Hilltop This ecosystem type had the lowest levels of human disturbance, butharsh and extreme environmental conditions. Weather conditions changefrequently and rapidly, even in a matter of hours. This limits orchiddistribution and explains the low number of species found. Stuntedforest grows on the peaks with a rocky, moss-covered forest floor. Themoss can hold rainwater, which puddles on rocks. With enough space,orchids grow well in these mossy moss��y?adj. moss��i��er, moss��i��est1. Covered with moss or something like moss: mossy banks.2. Resembling moss.3. Old-fashioned; antiquated. places, but orchids growing from cracksin the rocks are short bodied, yellowish and hard because of the extremeconditions. Open Areas and Roadsides In open areas, we encountered only six orchid species, all tolerantof full sunlight, wind, high rainfall and soils of low nutrient content.The orchids were usually found growing between the ground and timberleftovers, in cracks in rocks and even in the middle of the road, wherethey escaped being run over by cars and trucks. The orchid Dipodiumpictum was often seen along and in the middle of logging roads, usingthe nutrients from decaying wood. In temporary log pools, GrammatophyHumspeciosum plantlets measuring 20 cm to 1 m were discovered among thelogs; the distance between each plantlet was around 2 m. Four morespecies found were Acriopsis javanica, Arundina graminifolia The bamboo orchid (Arundina graminifolia; syn. Arundina bambusifolia Lindl., Arundina speciosa Blume, Bletia graminifolia D.Don) is a species of orchid and the sole of the genus Arundina. , Bromheadiafinlaysoniana and Spathoglottis plicata. Garden and Dry Farming Land We expected many orchids in gardens shaded by rubber trees butfound only four species. Villagers tend their crops by weeding and usingherbicides, thus limiting orchid growth. In informal discussions, wediscovered that community members considered orchids weeds, to be pulledup, burned or sprayed. Dry farming land had only two orchid species.These fields have full sunlight and undergo routine cultivation, as doplantations. Dwarf Swamp Forest We encountered only four orchid species in dwarf swamp forest, onthe periphery of land where water did not reach the treetops. Areas neardry land still receive orchid seeds from the nearby trees. One of thefour species was a unique species of root orchid, Taeniophyllum sp. Itis biologically unique in that it has no leaves; it photosynthesizesfrom the chlorophyl in its roots. Lakes and Waterways No literature had made any mention of hydrophytic orchids. So whilecrossing a lake, we were surprised to find Cymbidiumfinlaysonianumgrowing on a rotten tree trunk floating in the water. The specimen hadtaken root in a crack in the wood and appeared healthy, growing upwarddespite floating in the water (Figure 6). This species usually lives asan epiphyte epiphyte(ĕp`əfīt')or air plant,any plant that does not normally root in the soil but grows upon another living plant while remaining independent of it except for support (thus differing from a parasite). attached to tall trees For the Hotel in Teesside see Hotel tall treesTall Trees is a nightclub located on Tolcarne Road in Newquay, Cornwall, United Kingdom. The club has been voted as number 1 club in the south west for the last two years running by the Ministry of Sound magazine , with much less moisture than it hadfloating on the water. We also found Bromheadiafinlaysoniana, aterrestrial orchid, growing well in areas often flooded to depths of upto ! m. It seems these orchids are highly adaptable to water. Though thetwo species cannot be considered hydrophytic orchids, these findingswould make an interesting subject for further research. Orchid-Based Learning and Change in all training sites, inhabitants were generally eager to learnnew things about orchids. They had seen orchids around them but beenunaware of their names, uses and value. After undergoing training,elders, adults, and primary school children have been surprisinglymotivated to plant. On their way home from school, children in Piamcollect fallen orchids for planting practice. All materials areavailable on site: they plant the orchids in tree branches instead ofplastic pots, use moss or fern roots for the planting medium instead ofcoconut fiber, and use rattan rattan(rătăn`), name for a number of plants of the genera Calamus, Daemonorops, and Korthalsia climbing palms of tropical Asia, belonging to the family Palmae (palm family). rope, plant roots, fishing line andplastic string to hang the "potted" plants. Our observations and informal discussions with community membersstimulated greater interest in orchid conservation, allowing localpeople to appreciate more fully the beauty of their flowers. Awarenessthat the forest supports flowers of such beauty opened their eyes to itsmany forms of valuable life. This realization catalyzed a significantchange in individual behavior but has not yet created a "socialchange movement" or effected any significant change in communalbehavior. The high prices for orchids made some people, especially thosesearching for substitutes for illegal logging Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber in violation of national laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission or from a protected area; the cutting of , (10) expect quick cashincomes from selling the orchids and even consider harvesting them fromthe wild. The community members quickly took a number of actions inrelation to ownership status. They marked orchid host trees withcrosses, showing that the orchids in these trees belonged to members ofthe hamlet. Anyone needing to fell any of those trees has to askpermission from the hamlet head, customary head and orchid"owner." People are now more likely to preserve orchids and their hosttrees. If they want to cut a tree, whether to use the wood or to clearthe land for farming, they consider alternatives if the tree is host tomany orchids. Because they realize that the orchids on wild trees may bevery valuable, however, a significant danger is that they might beginlarge-scale collecting of forest orchids. Some people are aware thatthis situation could fuel competition and lead to overexploitation. To prevent this, we tailed about orchids as a natural heritage andcultural resource. We strove to instill in��stillv.To pour in drop by drop.instil��lation n. pride in orchids and theirhabitats as part of the communities' natural heritage (see Prasetyoand Zuikifli 2009). Consequently, the people agreed to make theirforests an ecotourism e��co��tour��ism?n.Tourism involving travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the guidance of a naturalist, for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment. attraction or destination. The approach helpedencourage a new paradigm New ParadigmIn the investing world, a totally new way of doing things that has a huge effect on business.Notes:The word "paradigm" is defined as a pattern or model, and it has been used in science to refer to a theoretical framework. among communities, followed by communitycollective action. Communities that had previously considered orchids and other forestproducts only from a short-term economic angle (harvesting and selling)are now more inclined to consider long-term benefits, including suchabstract benefits as cleanliness and health, (11) knowledge, learningopportunities, recognition from outsiders, and so on. They areencouraged to make shared agreements and rules to protect forests withorchids. They can explain orchid species and their protection tovisiting researchers, NGO NGOabbr.nongovernmental organizationNoun 1. NGO - an organization that is not part of the local or state or federal governmentnongovernmental organization staff, government officials, and donors. Yet there are still some challenges. The people believe that thegovernment does not give them sufficient help in developing ecotourismand, instead, is allocating forestland for��est��land?n.A section of land covered with forest or set aside for the cultivation of forests. for large-scale monocultureplantations. Maintaining their own interest and adherence to their planspresents another challenge--a chicken-or-egg question. People mayprotect their natural heritage more if ecotourists value it, but thesevisitors will come only if the destination is worthwhile and theexperience is comfortable and enjoyable. Two prerequisites for thedevelopment of tourism are improving the capacity and skills of localstakeholders and building knowledge about the meaning and implicationsof ecotourism. Training in orchid identification and growth characteristics wasalso conducted in a larger town, Selimbau, on the Kapuas River The Kapuas River (Indonesian: Sungai Kapuas) is located in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. At approximately 1,143 km, it is the longest river in Indonesia, and is the major river of the western portion of Borneo. It is also the world's longest river on an island. in theDSNP buffer zone buffer zonen.A neutral area between hostile or belligerent forces that serves to prevent conflict.Noun 1. buffer zone . Training in cultivation techniques, however, was notgiven, for two reasons. First, unlike the remote hamlets inside thepark, Selimbau enjoys easy access by both river and land transport,making possible the collection of wild orchids for sale. Second,Selimbau has an approximately 5-ha field of black orchids Black Orchids is a Nero Wolfe double mystery by Rex Stout published in 1942 by Farrar & Rinehart, Inc. Stout's first short story collection, the volume is composed of two novellas that had appeared in abridged form in The American Magazine: in a cemeterycomplex from the Selimbau Kingdom. Orchid fields like this are uniqueand have not been found inside DSNP. Training here therefore emphasizedmanagement of the orchid field together with the royal cemetery ground. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED]Box 1. Example of negotiation and participatory processes in theprotection of wild orchid habitats.In Selimbau, the bottom-up processes began when a trainingparticipant discovered a 5 ha field of black orchids, and invitedpeople in the town to protect the orchids and their habitat. Thecommunity then held a meeting to discuss steps to protect theorchids and their habitat. They then established Kelompok WisataAnggrek Danau Sentarum (KWADS or Danau Sentarum Orchid TourismGroup) to manage the site, and prevent theft and exploitation.KWADS then met the subdistrict and village heads to submit itsproposal to protect the orchid habitat. After negotiations withland owners, the boundaries of the protected orchid habitat weremarked with tags. In April 2008, the field of black orchids wasformalized as the Selimbau Wild Orchid Garden through a customaryceremony led by the government and community customary leaders.Selimbau Wild Orchid Garden is envisioned as an ecotourismdestination. The population hopes to link with other ecotourisminterests such as lake recreation and arowana breeding, as well ashistorical tourism relating to the Selimbau Sultanate, the oldestkingdom in Kapuas Hulu. Remaining historical artifacts are beinginventoried for development as tourism assets, and the NetherlandsGovernment is even prepared to return artifacts from the SelimbauSultanate if a museum is built in Selimbau. (i) Selimbau people ontheir own initiative shared knowledge with the people in theadjacent village, Benuis. As a result, the people of Benuis agreedto protect 200 ha forest for orchid ecotourism, and refuseconversion into a large-scale plantation.Reports about the orchid garden in local and national newspapershave spread the word; and not long afterwards, the governor of WestKalimantan included the black orchid in the logo of Visit WestKalimantan 2010 (ii) and the District Head formally protected thegarden as a historical site through decree No. 158/2009.A good thing is always accompanied by risks and challenges. Visitsto and coverage of the same hamlets/sites can result in otherhamlets' potential being neglected. Therefore, there should beefforts, especially from the DSNP Office and NGOs to give equalopportunities to other hamlets. Another risk is that many peoplehave tried to steal or persuade local community members to sell theorchids. This was a test of KWADS' resilience, and it seems themembers have maintained their convictions and are planning to builda fence and schedule patrols.(i) Source of information: the Secretary of customary institution,personal communication (2009)(ii) Source: the Secretary of KWADS, personal communication (2009) Working as facilitators, we used various methods to catalyzelearning. Active learning. Communities learned about orchid species, growthcharacteristics and habitat preferences from direct observation in thefield. They also learned about the flowers and vegetative vegetative/veg��e��ta��tive/ (vej?e-ta?tiv)1. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of plants.2. concerned with growth and nutrition, as opposed to reproduction.3. and generativereproductive organs Reproductive organsThe group of organs (including the testes, ovaries, and uterus) whose purpose is to produce a new individual and continue the species.Mentioned in: Choriocarcinoma of orchids, breeding and cross-breeding techniques,favorable sites and plant medium fertility. Learning from others. In learning forums about ecotourism andecoentrepreneurship, community members shared their experiences,successes and failures. This sharing of knowledge and experiencesenriched every participant's understanding, and they could choosewhich ideas were appropriate for their circumstances. Creating scenarios. Communities were invited to create scenarios oforchid management and calculate the risks and benefits of severalmanagement and land-use options, such as collecting and selling wildorchids, cultivating wild orchids for sale, conserving orchids in theforest and clearing orchid habitat for rubber or oil palm plantations. Appreciative inquiry and asset-based thinking. Many rural peoplelack self-confidence in their ability to improve their communities andlives; we might say they have a victim mentality. Appreciative inquiryand asset-based thinking approaches were used to encourageself-confidence, empowerment, creativity and the capacity to identifyeconomic and noneconomic potential in their environment and becomedrivers of social change (Yuliani et al. 2008b). Those approaches contributed to several positive outcomes. Somepeople put forward new ideas relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accorchid conservation, such ascross-breeding. Some brought wild orchid species from the forest totheir villages and sowed the seeds in their house lots. Some also begangrowing orchids on trees in their gardens, where the plants were easierto maintain, to enhance their homes and show to guests. Others chose tospecialize in conserving very valuable, rare and beautiful moon orchids(Phalaenopsis species), which are prized worldwide; having the ambitionto become a specialist is in itself an achievement. Some people began toreflect on their previous land-use systems and the effects of clearingthe forest for rubber. We were surprised by the large number of people involved in thelearning processes who were highly motivated and on their own initiativedisseminated their new knowledge and reflective thinking to visitors andpeople in other hamlets. This high level of learning, sometimes calledtriple-loop learning, can encourage social change (see Armitage et al.2008). People who secured new knowledge and ways of thinking were eagerto disseminate what they had learned to other communities. Some peoplefrom other hamlets came in order to learn, and, as a result, settlementsin which we had not facilitated any meetings became interested inorchids: they converted the spaces under their longhouse longhouseTraditional communal dwelling of the Iroquois Indians until the 19th century. The longhouse was a rectangular box built out of poles, with doors at each end and saplings stretched over the top to form the roof, the whole structure being covered with bark. terraces fromrubbish dumps and animal pens to orchid nurseries and began protectingorchid host trees and natural orchid habitats. The protection of wild orchid habitats involves negotiation betweenstakeholders (individuals and groups) who feel they "own" hosttrees and/or land, participatory processes in preparing customary rules,and bottom-up processes for determining land use (see Box 1). Lack ofattention from the government was no longer seen by the community as aproblem. Instead, they organized themselves to ask for formalrecognition of orchid habitats in their village. The orchid conservation learning steps and their relation to socialchange processes (from knowledge to changing paradigms and communitycollective action) are summarized in Figure 7. Conclusions Species diversity is high in and around Danau Sentarum NationalPark. Orchid species diversity is determined by biophysical conditionsin each ecosystem as well as human land management practices. Severalorchid species are amazingly tolerant and adaptable and can still groweven under extreme conditions. In lowland forest, swamp forest, hill forest, on riverbanks andeven on rocky outcrops, orchid diversity and density are higher than inopen areas and places under intensive human management. Even inlogged-over forest, more species and higher densities were found than onfarmland and rubber plantations; biodiversity in general and orchids inparticular are threatened by monocultures and mining. With sufficientknowledge about orchids--their beauty, their importance as naturalheritage and their potential for ecotourism--local communities andbusiness practitioners could contribute to enhancing biodiversity. Thenumber of species found on every field trip in our fieldwork suggeststhat there are still many new, as yet unidentified, species. The furtherresearch needed to document all the orchids in the region representsanother opportunity for local people to benefit by becoming fieldassistants, interpreters and guides. Through orchid-based learning, appreciative inquiry, and anasset-based approach, people's perception that conservation is anobstacle to development and an impediment to community livelihoods canchange. Conservation practices can become a source of pride for localcommunities and change a passive, victim stance to a sense ofempowerment; people gain self-confidence and self-motivation and areable to organize various activities that drive change. Lessons that combine technical information, scenarios comparingbenefits and risks, beauty, pride of place, and cultural and naturalheritage can encourage rapid learning about conservation and enhancesocial capital. Such approaches can also help people think moreholistically and systemically about long-term benefits and risks, takepride in their natural heritage and develop a greater appreciation ofnature. Participatory action research can be carried out in a cost- andtime-efficient manner with minimal facilitation and externalintervention, if we are sharp and prudent in seeing and usingopportunities and do not rigidly cling to theory. Outcomes that aretimely and relevant to the local and national context are possible whenwe are responsive and flexible. It is vital to work together with localcommunities that show high levels of interest and motivation, and buildtheir capacity as local champions of conservation. A network involving villages, researchers, park management staff,NGOs and international organizations is another key to success. Peoplein these villages have more opportunities to exchange information withthe outside world, take part in various learning events in other placesand host visits from researchers and journalists. Management of DSNP andits environs as a natural laboratory and ecotourism destination requirescooperation between the park office, local communities, districtgovernment and NGOs, plus good governance at all levels, involving allstakeholder groups. Community-based orchid conservation is a common practice in manyparts of the world, including Asia, Australia, Europe, Latin America andNorth America; people in the northeastern region of India, for example,have a tradition of conserving wild orchids based on religious beliefsand herbal medicine herbal medicine,use of natural plant substances (botanicals) to treat and prevent illness. The practice has existed since prehistoric times and flourishes today as the primary form of medicine for perhaps as much as 80% of the world's population. (Medhi and Chakrabarti 2009). in Indonesia we arestill struggling with the skeptics. However, we have proven that orchidconservation is an innovative way to benefit local communities and helpbuild good governance, with participatory and bottom-up decision making.In other countries, establishment of community nurseries, ecotourism andmanagement groups are indicators of success. We would argue that in theIndonesian context, success will be apparent in the communities'and other stakeholders' ability to be resilient, face challengesand threats and reframe Re`frame´v. t. 1. To frame again or anew. challenging situations into opportunities. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank the Ford Foundation, CIFOR, andEU-Gemconbio for their funding support for the research. The authordeeply thanks Moira Moeliono and Carol Colfer for their guidance andconsistent support throughout the research and write-up; DorisCapistrano, Bruce Campbell, and Terry Sunderland for their institutionalsupport; the people in our research locations and in various offices;Entim Fatimah and colleagues in the Orchid Unit of Bogor BotanicalGarden, Jeffrey Wood and Phillip Cribb from Kew Garden for sharing theirknowledge during species identification; Agus Mulyana, YayanIndriatmoko, Dina Hubudin, Charlotte Soeria, Heru Komarudin, TitinSuhartini, Bagus Hargo Utomo and all colleagues on the team for theirwonderful support and friendship; Valentinus Heri, Seselia Ernawati, PakItam, Jerry Irwanto, Jerry Dahrin, Bambang Dahat and everyone in RiakBumi Foundation and Danau Sentarum National Park Authority for beingwonderful friends. The views expressed in this paper, however, are those of theauthors alone and do not represent the views and policies of the donoragencies and CIFOR. 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CIFOR, Sindang Barang Bogor, West Java, Indonesia leo_bp@yahoo.com Zulkifli M.S. Riak Bumi Foundation JL. Putri Dara Itam Gg. Tani No. 1 Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia zul_ms24@yahoo.com (1) The precise number of species is unknown because of taxonomicdisputes. Kew Royal Botanical Garden lists 880 genera and 22,000species. (2) Data were collected in 2006-2008. Between then and when thisarticle was written, in 2009, the USD-IDR exchange rate fluctuated. Allcalculations here use the exchange rate US$1 = IDR 10,000. Prices in2006. (3) Also known as tiger orchid, sugar cane orchid and queen of theorchids (4) Floating meadow and lakebed vegetation ecosystems were notorchid habitats, and two ecosystem types (secondary shrub and burnedarea regrowth) had similar environmental conditions and vegetation. (5) Environmental conditions for each ecosystem type explained hereare based on qualitative conditions. We did not conduct any quantitativemeasurements. Secondary data were insufficient. (6) In this area, logs are transported from the forest to thewaterways by bicycle (see Heri et al., this volume, for details). (7) We used pseudonyms to guard the orchids from smugglers and toprotect the privacy of the people we studied. (8) Growing orchids seeds in closed bottles, using artificialgrowth media, is a common method of orchid cultivation. (9) Ethnic Malay settlements inside DSNP are usually situatedbeside rivers and lakes and get full sunlight throughout the day; theyare therefore unsuitable for growing orchids. Consequently, we conductedorchid training in only one Malay hamlet. (10) The training began at the time of the government's driveto halt illegal logging. Community members who had previously worked forillegal loggers were looking for other income sources. (11) The people in Piam used to use the space underneath theirlonghouse for keeping animals, and for domestic wastes--which couldbecome a source of disease. After learning about the ideal habitat forgrowing orchids, they converted the space underneath the longhouse fororchid cultivation, making the space clean and healthier. People fromother villages were impressed by the cleanliness and differentatmosphere (fresh and green environment) that resulted from orchidcultivation, and took up the practice in their villages (see Prasetyo etal. 2007).Figure 5. Number of orchid species found, by ecosystem typeNumber of speciesTypes of orchid ecosystem in DSNPLowland forest 93Swamp forest 43Hill forest 38Riparian forest 33Rocky hilltop 19Openland and roadsides 6Agroforest 4Dwad swamp forest 4Dry farming land 2Lakes and waterways 2Note: Table made from bar graph.