Charting the effects of plough damage using metal-detected assemblages.

Charting the effects of plough damage using metal-detected assemblages. Introduction The exceptional quality and wealth of the Staffordshire hoard (seeEditorial in Antiquity 84: 295-6) has highlighted the importance of theTreasure Act in facilitating the reporting of finds of portableantiquities in England and Wales England and Wales are both constituent countries of the United Kingdom, that together share a single legal system: English law. Legislatively, England and Wales are treated as a single unit (see State (law)) for the conflict of laws. . We should not ignore, however, themore mundane objects reported on a day-to-day basis which can also throwlight on past societies and, as this paper seeks to demonstrate, on thedepositional history of artefacts. The archaeology of the ploughzone is an important area of study(e.g. Schofield 1991) and archaeologists are well aware of the damagedone to stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. archaeological deposits by modern agriculturalpractices (e.g. Lambrick 1977, 1980, 2004; Hinchliffe & Schadla-Hall1980). Most mitigation strategies, however, have focused on lesseningthe damage to monuments rather than assemblages (e.g. Oxford Archaeology Oxford Archaeology (formerly the Oxford Archaeological Unit) is, along with MoLAS and Wessex Archaeology, one of the big three private archaeological organisations in the United Kingdom. 2006; Oxford Archaeology & Cranfield University Cranfield University is a British postgraduate university based on three campuses. The main campus is at Cranfield, Bedfordshire, England. The others are at Shrivenham, Oxfordshire, and Silsoe, also in Bedfordshire, some 2010). There hasbeen some research into the effects of plough disturbance on artefacts,although most previous studies of such attrition have been concernedwith mechanical or chemical damage to pottery (Reynolds 1988, 1989;Boismier 1997) and, in a few cases, bone, while for metalwork most workhas started from the issue of how arable agriculture has resulted inchanges in the chemical stability of objects and has not looked atmechanical damage (Fjaestad et al. 1997; Scharff & Huesmann 1997;Wagner et al. 1997; Gerwin & Baumhauser 2000; Pollard pollardfine protein-rich feed supplement for farm animals; a byproduct from the milling of wheat for flour. Called also shorts. et al. 2004;Ullen et al. 2004). McLean and Richardson (2007) have discussed whether detectedAnglo-Saxon brooches are accidentally lost or represent deliberatedeposition, based on the composition of the detected assemblage assemblage:see collage. assemblageThree-dimensional construction made from household materials such as rope and newspapers or from any found materials. oversouthern England in comparison with the excavated assemblage.Chester-Kadwell (2009: 76-7) has compared excavated and detectedbrooches in Norfolk and reviewed the literature on aspects of ploughzonetaphonomy ta��phon��o��my?n.1. The study of the conditions and processes by which organisms become fossilized.2. The conditions and processes of fossilization. as it relates to metal-detected artefacts. Metal-detecting is often portrayed as an activity which destroysarchaeology (Dobinson & Denison 1995; Oxford Archaeology 2009;Thomas & Stone 2009). However, comparison of the condition ofstratified excavated and metal-detected artefacts recovered from theploughsoil allows us to chart the effects of plough damage on portableantiquities. Instead of being a cause of damage to archaeology,metal-detecting has the potential to provide new data to help usunderstand the processes at work in the agricultural destruction of thearchaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. . Anglo-Saxon pins and strap-ends Copper-alloy artefacts comprise the majority of finds made bydetector users although they are frequently recovered in a fragmentary frag��men��tar��y?adj.Consisting of small, disconnected parts: a picture that emerges from fragmentary information.frag state. The VASLE project identified that 85 per cent of Anglo-Saxonfinds recorded in the Portable Antiquities Scheme database were copperalloy (Richards et al. 2009: 3.2, fig. 61). In the present study,attrition to two groups of Anglo-Saxon copper-alloy dress fittings,namely pins and strap-ends, was quantified and demonstrated to resultlargely from farming practices. The choice of pins and strap-ends rests,on the one hand, from them being ubiquitous and numerous finds on MiddleSaxon sites across the country and also through the availability ofcomprehensive records of longstanding detector surveys of several sitesof the period in the East Riding of Yorkshire The East Riding of Yorkshire is a local government district with unitary authority status, and a ceremonial county of England. It is named after the historic East Riding of Yorkshire (one of three ridings alongside the North Riding and West Riding), which also constituted a and one in West Yorkshire West Yorkshire,former metropolitan county, N central England. Created in the 1974 local government reorganization, the county largely embraced the Leeds conurbation and comprised five metropolitan districts: Calderdale, Bradford, Leeds, Wakefield, and Kirklees. . [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] In the case of the pins, the process was found to be observable ontwo sites over two to three decades. The pins studied here date from thelater Middle to Late Anglo-Saxon periods (c. AD 800-1000), and divideinto the following broad categories of head form: faceted, biconical,globular globularresembling a globe.globular hearta spherical cardiac silhouette, usually greatly enlarged and lacking the detailed outline of the right and left atria and apex. Characteristic of pericardial effusion and cardiomyopathy. and flat (largely disc or rhomboid rhomboid/rhom��boid/ (rom��boid) [Gr. rhombos rhomb +-oid ] having a shape similar to a rectangle that has been skewed to one side so that the angles are oblique. ) (Haldenby & Richards2009). Other groups of Anglo-Saxon pins are not included, each predatingthe study group and being far less numerous. These comprise those fromearly burials, often with plain disc or spiral heads, and the largeeighth-century chip-carved and gilded gild?1?tr.v. gild��ed or gilt , gild��ing, gilds1. To cover with or as if with a thin layer of gold.2. To give an often deceptively attractive or improved appearance to.3. forms. Suggestions as to thefunction of Anglo-Saxon pins largely derive from the presence of theearlier types around the upper torso of early Anglo-Saxon femaleinhumation burials and include their possible use in the pinning ofveils, lightweight scarves scarves?n.A plural of scarf1.scarvesNouna plural of scarf1 , shawls and headbands, or for holding upplaited plait?n.1. A braid, especially of hair.2. A pleat.tr.v. plait��ed, plait��ing, plaits1. To braid.2. To pleat.3. To make by braiding. hair (Figure 1). The strap-ends studied are widely considered to be ninth centuryand all share certain features, including: a double-pierced split end toreceive the strap; a leaf motif below this; a decorated central panel;and a modelled animal head at the terminal (Figure 2). Function is againuncertain and, as Thomas (2003) summarises, uses probably included theterminals of girdles and garters or bag and satchel straps. To establish the overall degree of any damage to material in theploughzone requires reference to undisturbed un��dis��turbed?adj.Not disturbed; calm.undisturbedAdjective1. quiet and peaceful: an undisturbed village2. deposits. Five excavatedassemblages: Hamwic (Hinton 1996), Winchester (Biddle 1990), Fishergate,York (Rogers 1993), Cottam B (Richards et al. 1999) and Flixborough(Evans & Loveluck 2009), were compared with five metal-detectedassemblages: Cottam A and B (Richards et al. 1999, in prep), SouthNewbald (Leahy 2000), Cowlam (Richards et al. in prep) and a fifth sitewhose location is currently being kept secret to preserve it fromunauthorised nighthawks This article is about the painting by Edward Hopper. For other uses, see Nighthawks (disambiguation).Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. , and which will simply be described as'Near Pocklington'. Since data is available on strap-ends (butnot pins) from a further metal-detected site, 'Near York'(also unidentified for the same reason), this is included in thecomparison of strap-end condition, along with information on a sixthexcavated site, 'York (other)' which in fact includesstrap-ends from a number of excavations in that city. Loss or breakage? [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Table 1 compares the number of pins with complete shanks For other meanings, see Shanks (disambiguation)The shanks and tattlers are wading bird species in a number of genera characterised by a medium length bill and long, often brightly coloured legs. frommetal-detection and excavation, and shows that most damage to pinsoccurs following entry into the ploughzone. By virtue of their slendershanks, pins are highly susceptible to mechanical disturbance and thisleads to failure as a result of accelerated chemical corrosion in theincreased aerated aer��ate?tr.v. aer��at��ed, aer��at��ing, aer��ates1. To supply with air or expose to the circulation of air: aerate soil.2. environment. By contrast, pins from excavated contextsare relatively complete, which demonstrates that, more often than not,deposition occurred as a result of accidental loss or the discard ofcomplete objects, rather than being thrown away due to breakage.Although metal-detectors were used to enhance recovery levels at two ofthe excavated sites (Cottam B and Flixborough) this will only haveincreased the recovery of smaller broken pieces, rendering thecomparison even more striking. During early ploughing episodes pins may become bent as a preludeto snapping. Therefore there is a higher proportion of bent pins and agreater degree of bending in complete detected pins compared withcomplete excavated examples (Table 2). In the case of many of themetal-detected examples, cracked patina at the bend further points tomodern damage which, due to metal fatigue, represents a point ofweakness at which breakage is more likely to occur upon subsequentagricultural disturbance. Strap-ends are more robust and the results are not as clear-cut,although as Table 3 demonstrates they also show varying degrees ofplough damage, as evidenced once again by the relatively intact natureof the excavated material. Since it is clear from repaired examples thatstrap-ends sometimes remained in use following damage, the comparisonhere between detected and excavated finds was of the percentages ofexamples that were at least 95 per cent complete. As with the pins, itwould appear that the frequently intact nature of excavated strap-endsis evidence of their loss, more often than discard due to breakage. One can easily envisage en��vis��age?tr.v. en��vis��aged, en��vis��ag��ing, en��vis��ag��es1. To conceive an image or a picture of, especially as a future possibility: envisaged a world at peace.2. the loss of large numbers of pins havingresulted from their insecure means of attachment but the mechanism bywhich, consistently across Middle Saxon sites, the loss of large numbersof securely attached strap-ends occurred is less obvious. This isunless, as Hinton envisaged (1996: 37), many were in fact stitched,perhaps following the loss or removal of the rivets (after strapbreakage probably at the junction with the strap-end) or even from theoutset. Evidence of this can be seen in the majority of strap-ends,whether detected or excavated, having no rivets (Figure 3). Thisscenario would make the loss of a strap-end no less understandable thanthat of a button whose gradually loosening stitching was not attended toin time. The degree of fragmentation of the pins and strap-ends on each sitesurveyed by detector was also examined. This was undertaken for pins bycalculating the average remaining shank shank(shangk)1. leg (1).2. crus ( 2).shankn.The part of the human leg between the knee and ankle. length and for strap-ends bycalculating the average completeness in percentage terms. As Table 4 demonstrates there are variations in levels of ploughdamage between sites, no doubt depending on various factors including asite's soil type or particular agricultural history, and these willbe explored below. On individual sites these factors appear to haveaffected both the pins and strap-ends to a similar extent. Hence, forexample, we find that at 'Near Pocklington' and Cowlam bothartefact See artifact. groups show relatively less damage whilst at South Newbald bothgroups show more damage. Irrespective of irrespective ofprep.Without consideration of; regardless of.irrespective ofpreposition despiteagricultural circumstances, the process ofpost-depositional artefact attrition can, on occasion, be seen to beginas soon as loss has occurred (Lambrick 1984; Needham & Spence n. 1. A place where provisions are kept; a buttery; a larder; a pantry.In . . . his spence, or "pantry" were hung the carcasses of a sheep or ewe, and two cows lately slaughtered.- Sir W. Scott. 1996).Immediate breakage may result from trampling by people or largerdomestic animals, as well as when an object is displaced from itsoriginal context (by subsequent habitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas ; the action of burrowinganimals, wind or water action etc.), whether in antiquity or morerecently. When the unstratified un��strat��i��fied?adj.Lacking definite layers: unstratified rock.Adj. 1. unstratified - not deposited in layers; "glacial till is unstratified" pins from Flixborough (Evans &Loveluck 2009) are compared with those recovered in context the latterare seen to be, on average, more complete with significantly longersurviving shanks than the unstratified pins. The unstratified findsinclude those recovered from the spoilheap and the ploughsoil and theproportion of complete pins reflects a position which is partway part��way?adv. InformalTo a certain degree or distance; in part: partway to town; not even partway reasonable.betweena stratified and a metal-detected assemblage (Table 5). Damage through time So far this study has drawn on total numbers within groups ofobjects and does not rely on the sequence in which they were recovered.Full finds records, including approximate dates of recovery, exist forsites Cottam B and South Newbald, surveyed for 23 years and 30 yearsrespectively. For these sites it is therefore possible to observewhether fragmentation has increased over time. In both cases the samedetector users, using the same machines, have been involved from theoutset, removing one possible source of bias, as there will have been noincrease over time in the ability to find smaller fragments. It mightstill be argued, however, that strong signals are more easily discernedand at greater depth than smaller ones and so larger, complete artefactsare generally found before fragments. This could, mistakenly, give theimpression of incremental plough damage but cannot easily be separatedout. Perhaps uniquely, one class of object, once again the humble dresspin, does make this possible by virtue of the fact that the pin shankwhich, as we have seen, is a sensitive indicator of plough damage, doesnot greatly add to a pin signal which is produced largely by the headwith its relatively concentrated mass. This arises out of the fact thatslender copper alloy rods (i.e. shanks) emit a very weak signal in thecase of most detectors. Personal experience of detector users and therecovery of very few detached pin shanks demonstrates this well,although there has been no quantified published study into this andother related phenomena. Various people have investigated (Crowther 1981; Barber 1990; Garrett 1991) or speculated about (Gregory & Rogerson1984:180; Pestel12005:171, n. 22) the efficacy of different detectormachines and the experience of metal-detectorists in picking upparticular sizes and shapes of object at different depths. Metallicartefacts from wet-sieved topsoil have also been compared with thosefrom metal-detecting (Watt 2006: 145) to inform an understanding of theprocesses of recovery, but there is a pressing need for more up-to-dateand comprehensive research into recovery bias. With the above collecting bias in mind only pin heads of a similarorder of size were included in this part of the study. Disc headed andflattened faceted head forms (mallet mallet,n a hammering instrument.mallet, hard,n a small hammer with a leather-, rubber-, fiber-, or metal-faced head; used to supply force or to supplement hand force for the compaction of foil or amalgam and to seat cast heads) were omitted as it wasobserved that their larger head size had indeed led to most of thesebeing found earlier in the recovery sequence. Their inclusion would havemeant that we were not comparing 'like with like' and it couldhave been assumed that larger heads would have stouter and so bettersurviving shanks, interfering once again with, and inflating, anyindications of plough damage. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] In fact, as Table 6 demonstrates, pins with larger heads at CottamB and South Newbald have shanks that are, on average, shorter than theremainder. Whilst these remain relatively intact up until entering theploughzone, from this moment on they probably experience greatermechanical stresses due to their larger heads presenting more resistanceand so preventing the pin from moving through soil experiencingploughing and/or compaction. This is taken as evidence that, notsurprisingly, as artefacts increase in size so too do the mechanicalforces which they experience and increased fragmentation results. It follows that any observable reduction in average pin shanklength over time has resulted from plough damage. Figures 4 and 5illustrate this at both Cottam B and South Newbald although a reversalin decline in phase 2b at South Newbald is apparent (albeit averageshank lengths do not return to original levels). An increase at SouthNewbald during the final survey phase in the number of shanks withslightly less damage (20-40mm), rather than of complete pins, is thecause of this rise and suggests an episode of deeper ploughing down intolevels previously disturbed, albeit less frequently than the uppermostlayers. The initial pin lengths at Cottam B suggest that at this site aneven deeper ('para ploughing') episode disturbedarchaeological deposits not long before survey began. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] That ploughing on parts of the Yorkshire Wolds The Yorkshire Wolds are low hills in the East Riding of Yorkshire in North-Eastern England. The name also applies to the district in which the hills lie.The hills are formed from chalk, and make an arc from the Humber estuary west of Kingston upon Hull up to the North Sea might only as lateas the mid 1980s have disturbed large amounts of material fromarchaeological deposits is not surprising. The historical avoidancethere of deep-ploughed potato crops and a shallow ploughing tradition(around 150mm) will have left much of the archaeology of the regionrelatively undisturbed well into the twentieth century (Harwood Long1969: 32). Despite the high initial figure at Cottam B the average pin shanklength on this site during the final survey phase is significantly lowerthan at South Newbald and since there is no obvious difference betweenhow each has been continuously cultivated the explanation is likely tohave more to do with varying soil types. Pins moving during ploughing inthe sandy soil of South Newbald would certainly experience lessresistance and consequent leverage than those in the chalk-laden boulderclay boulder clay:see drift. of Cottam B and greater fragmentation on the latter site is thelikely outcome. Although this paper has focused upon mechanical damageone might also note, however, that an acid sand is more likely to attackmetal than an alkaline chalk. Table 7 summarises the main factors, including those mentionedabove, that have affected the extent and rate of fragmentation of pinsand straps-ends on the detected sites included in this study. Conclusion With the recent burgeoning of studies into metal-detected artefactsin Britain, Scandinavia and elsewhere, there is a need for work on howmetal artefacts enter the ploughsoil from archaeological deposits, andhow changes in composition, condition and movement occur. These andother aspects of attrition in the ploughzone have long generated aconsiderable literature for pottery and flint, but there is a dearth ofartefact analysis and experimental research for metal finds. This paperhas attempted to make a contribution to the quantification of attritioncaused by ploughing. We have demonstrated that quantitative comparison of metal-detectedand excavated assemblages of Anglo-Saxon pins and strap-ends canilluminate depositional, postdepositional and recovery processes. It isevident that these artefacts suffer most damage in the ploughzone, whichsuggests that rather than having been deliberately discarded becausethey were broken, they were lost when intact and still functional. Inthe case of strap-ends this indicates that they were commonly stitchedto clothing and belts, not riveted. This does not necessarily mean thata similar depositional biography applies to all artefact types, as otherobjects may have been less prone to casual loss, although it is likelythat a similar process applies to Roman or early Saxon dress artefactswhich are of a similar function and form. Furthermore, this methodologycould be applicable to other periods and places in the world whereploughing and metal-detecting occur, in order to establish if the samepatterns arise. We have also quantified damage in the ploughzone and shown thatdifferences in damage are dependent upon the soil type and agriculturalhistory of the individual sites included in the study. Crucially, theresults show that the level of fragmentation of recovered artefactsincreases through time. Ploughing eventually causes metallic artefactsto degrade TO DEGRADE, DEGRADING. To, sink or lower a person in the estimation of the public. 2. As a man's character is of great importance to him, and it is his interest to retain the good opinion of all mankind, when he is a witness, he cannot be compelled to disclose completely, and therefore recovery by metal-detection(although considered by some to be destruction) is preferable to thealternative of doing nothing. Acknowledgements D. Haldenby, co-author and finder finder,in law. Ordinarily the finder of lost property is entitled to retain it against anyone except the owner. It is larceny, however, for the finder to keep the property if he knows or can easily determine who owns it. of many of the objects concernedfrom Cottam A, Cottam B, Cowlam and South Newbald, acknowledges theintegral contributions to the metal-detector surveys of the first threeof these sites made by colleagues: D. Hirst and S. Foster.Acknowledgement of finds information concerning 'NearPocklington' and 'Near York' goes respectively to BarryFreeman (Chairman of the National Council for Metal Detecting, YorkshireRegion) and Stephen Pickles (independent detectorist). Paula Gentil,Keeper of Archaeology at the Hull and East Riding Museum, where much ofthe material from the East Riding sites is now archived and displayed,is thanked for access to the same; Rose Nicholson, Keeper of Archaeologyat Scunthorpe Museum, kindly provided access to the Flixborough pins.Finally, the authors would like to thank George Lambrick and one otheranonymous referee for their guidance on existing literature onploughzone taphonomy; the remaining shortcomings are our ownresponsibility. Received: 18 January 2010; Revised: 2 June 2010; Accepted: 3 July2010 References BARBER, L. 1990. Metal detecting for archaeology. 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Detector sites and settlement archaeology onBornholm: a survey of 'productive sites' from the Iron Age andthe Viking Age 1996-1999. Journal of Danish Archaeology 14: 139-67. D. Haldenby (1) & Julian D. Richards (2) (1) Volunteer, Hull & East Riding Museum, 36 High Street, Hull,HU1 1NQ, UK (2) Department of Archaeology, University of York This article is about the British university. For the Canadian university, see York University. The University of York is a campus university in York, England. , King'sManor, York, YO1 7EP, UK (Email: julian.richards@york.ac.uk)Table 1. Pin condition: comparison of detected and excavated sites.Detected Number % completeCottam A 21 10%Cottam B 79 (1) 15%South Newbald 144 (1) 14%Cowlam 23 17%'Near Pocklington' 41 26%TOTAL 308 16%Excavated Number % completeHamwic 155 83% (2)Winchester 11 100%York (Fishergate) 21 91%Cottam B 7 86%Flixborough 238 77% (2)TOTAL 432 81%(1) Based on finds for which images were available(2) Estimated where unclear from published reportTable 2. Bent pins: comparison of detected and excavated sites(complete pins only). with > 10 [degrees] Average No. bend %Detected Cottam B 11 46% South Newbald 18 78% 64% 'Near Pocklington' 13 62%Excavated and Hamwic' 47 21%in context Flixborough 120 32% 34% (York) Fishergate' 17 76% Cottam B 6 67% Overall average Average bend bendDetected Cottam B 90[degrees] South Newbald 59[degrees] 81[degrees] 'Near Pocklington' 127[degrees]Excavated and Hamwic' 47[degrees]in context Flixborough 45[degrees] 47[degrees] (York) Fishergate' 52[degrees] Cottam B 31[degrees](1) Measurements based upon published illustrations rather than actualpins or photographsTable 3. Strap-end condition: comparison of detected andexcavated sites. [greater than or equalDetected Number to] 95% completeCottam A 11 55%Cottam B 37 53%South Newbald 31 33%Cowlam 8 50%'Near Pocklington' 11 73%'Near York' 27 16%TOTAL 125 42% [greater than or equalExcavated Number to] 95% completeHamwic 12 83%Winchester 10 90%York (Fishergate) 4 75%York (Other) 12 75%Cottam B 3 100%Flixborough 14 50%TOTAL 55 76%Table 4. Detected sites: average pin shank length and strap-end %completeness. Pins Strap-ends Average Average % Number shank length Number completeness (1)Cottam A 21 167mm 11 77%Cottam B 90 192mm 37 75%South Newbald 147 147mm 31 74%Cowlam 23 250mm 8 79%'Near Pocklington' 41 251mm 11 87%(1) Estimated proportion based on nearest 10% for each strap-endTable 5. Flixborough: excavated pins.Where found Number % complete (1) Average shank length (1)In context 162 83.3% 494mmUnstratified 76 64.5% 415mm(1) Estimated where unclear from published reportTable 6. Cottam B and South Newbald: average shank length. Pins Large heads excluded Number Average length Number Average lengthCottam B 90 192mm 68 202mmSouth Newbald 147 147mm 137 151mm Large heads only Number Average lengthCottam B 22 166mmSouth Newbald 10 95mmTable 7. Comparative ploughing histories and geology. Strap-ends: Pins: average average % Location & shank length completeness topographyCottam A 167mm 77% High Wolds; flat and adjacent to deep valleyCottam B 192mm 75% High Wolds; flat and adjacent to deep valleySouth 147mm 74% Lowland; S ofNewbald Wolds; flat & adjacent broad stream & villageCowlam 250mm 79% High Wolds; gently undulating & adjacent to deep valley'Near 251mm 87% High Wolds; valleyPocklington' bottom; on village outskirts Ploughing Soil historyCottam A Boulder clay; thin; Long duration; uniform depth; historically chalk beneath ploughed < 150mmCottam B Boulder clay; thin; Long duration; uniform depth; historically chalk beneath ploughed < 150mmSouth Sandy; depth Long duration;Newbald unknown; plough probably not brings up gravel restricted to 150mmCowlam Boulder clay; Recent; first variable depth; ploughing early chalk beneath 1970s; historically ploughed < 150mm'Near Boulder clay; depth Long duration;Pocklington' unknown; chalk historically beneath ploughed < 150mm Recent eventsCottam A Excavated 1996; deep ploughing damage visible in dig; frequent potato crop in recent yearsCottam B Excavated 1993-95; deep ploughing damage visible in dig; frequent potato crop in recent yearsSouth Unexcavated;Newbald intensively farmedCowlam Excavated 2003; some plough damage visible; auger survey showed variable soil depth'Near UnexcavatedPocklington'Figure 3. Strap-ends: the presence of rivets.% with [greater than or equal to] 1 surviving rivet in placeExcavated 5/27Detected 3/29Note: Table made from bar graph.