CHERCHEZ L'ARGENT: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEBATE ABOUT CLASS SIZE, STUDENT-FACULTY RATIOS, AND USE OF ADJUNCT FACULTY.

CHERCHEZ L'ARGENT: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEBATE ABOUT CLASS SIZE, STUDENT-FACULTY RATIOS, AND USE OF ADJUNCT FACULTY. THERE IS GROWING CONCERN about the declining use of full-timetenure-track faculty in social work education programs in the face of alarge increase in student enrollment. McMurtry and McClelland (1997) useCouncil on Social Work Education The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) is the national association for social work education in the United States of America.The CSWE sets and maintains standards of courses and accreditation of bachelor's degree's and Master's degree programs in social work. (CSWE CSWE Council on Social Work EducationCSWE Certificate in Spoken and Written EnglishCSWE Center for Student Work Experience ) statistics to document a 54.9%enrollment increase from 1977 to 1994, accompanied by an 18.2% growth intotal faculty. During this period, tenure-track faculty increased 4.8%while non-tenure-track faculty grew 35.4%. The ratio of tenure-track tonon-tenure-track faculty of 0.98 in the last two years of the timeseries indicates for the first time the near equal use ofnon-tenure-track faculty in social work education programs. At the sametime, the student-faculty ratio in MSW (MicroSoft Word) See Microsoft Word. programs has steadily creptupward from 9.9:1 in 1981 to 13.5:1 in 1994, an increase of 36.4%.McMurtry and McClelland point out that the student-faculty ratios inpsychology and communication sciences programs in 1993 and 1994,respectively, were half those in social work education and excludedpart-time faculty in the calculation. They offer as explanation for these trends the countervailingpressures of increased student demand for social work education anddeclining taxpayer support for higher education. Positing larger sizeclasses as inimical inimical,n a homeopathic remedy whose actions hinder, but do not counteract those of another. Also calledincompatible. to student learning and achievement, McMurtry andMcClelland urge that through the accreditation process CSWE enforce itsown recommendation for a student-faculty ratio of approximately 12:1 inMSW programs and 25:1 in BSW BSW Bachelor of Social Work (degree)BSW Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft (German Solar Industry Association)BSW BrettspielWelt (online gaming site)BSW Biblical Studies on the Web programs. In light of what they view as theexploitative use of low-paid non-tenure-track and part-time faculty wholack benefits, professional autonomy professional autonomy,n the right and privilege provided by a governmental entity to a class of professionals, and to each qualified licensed caregiver within that profession, to provide services independent of supervision. , and opportunity for advancement,McMurtry and McClelland also suggest that CSWE develop accreditationpolicies that limit the use of non-tenure-track faculty and provide themwith an appropriate measure of protection as professionals. This article questions McMurtry and McClelland's assumptionsabout the possible cause-effect relationship between class size andstudent achievement, and their explanation of why colleges anduniversities increasingly substitute non-tenure-track and part-timepersonnel for tenure-track faculty. Data on class enrollment and facultyteaching assignments in the BSW, MSW, and PhD programs in anillustrative il��lus��tra��tive?adj.Acting or serving as an illustration.il��lustra��tive��ly adv.Adj. 1. school of social work in an Eastern private universitysuggest that McMurtry and McClelland's proposed remedies would nothave the intended effect. This is because of the ambiguity of CSWEstandards and recommendations when applied to the many differentconfigurations of social work curricula and programs that existthroughout the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Findings from the research literature alsopoint to more plausible explanations than student-faculty ratio fordifferences in student learning. The data suggest a monetary motive or, cherchez l'argent, asthe French say, as the biggest factor in decisions about class size,student-faculty ratios, and use of adjunct faculty. Despiteadministrative claims of collegiality col��le��gi��al��i��ty?n.1. Shared power and authority vested among colleagues.2. Roman Catholic Church The doctrine that bishops collectively share collegiate power. and shared governance, social workfaculty have little say or control over the decisions made at the higherlevels of administration about the utilization of scarce resources.Institutional survival and the need to offset tuition revenue lost inprograms deemed essential to the central mission of the universityprovide the motive for expanding programs that afford the opportunity todo so at least cost. Social work and law offer such opportunitiesbecause the educational process in these fields--unlike the sciences,medicine and nursing--requires little or no investment in specialfacilities or equipment. In addition, field educators and adjunctfaculty are often more willing to accept symbolic instead of hardcurrency rewards for their contributions. After presenting data in response to McMurtry and McClelland, theauthor discusses areas that CSWE's Commission on Accreditation andsocial work programs alike can focus on to improve student achievement. Method Two sources of information were employed to address McMurtry andMcClelland's issues and explanations for increasing student-facultyratios and decreasing use of tenure-track faculty in social workeducation. First, the higher education literature was reviewed forpossible alternative interpretations relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc(1) the relationshipbetween class size and student achievement and (2) motivations for thedecreasing use of tenure-track faculty. Second, data and estimates weregathered from knowledgeable informants in the illustrative school ofsocial work to address these same issues. These data relating to courseand section enrollments, tuition revenue and discounts, and compensationfor faculty, administrative, and staff support are openly available inpublic institutions of higher education (Noble, Cryns, & Laury,1992; Yamatani, 1990), but are more closely held A phrase used to describe the ownership, management, and operation of a corporation by a small group of people.In a closely held corporation, the same people often act as shareholders, directors, and officers, and no outside investors exist. by private colleges anduniversities. Following the methods described by Yamatani (1990) and Noble,Cryns, and Laury (1992), tuition revenue and expense flows were examinedby reference to the 79 individual course and course sections scheduledfor the spring 1998 semester se��mes��ter?n.One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.[German, from Latin (cursus) s in the illustrative school of social work.Student enrollment, the number of credit hours, and tuition per credithour were used to estimate tuition revenue. Individual teachingassignments and faculty characteristics, including type of academicappointment and estimated salaries and fringe benefits fringe benefits,n.pl the benefits, other than wages or salary, provided by an employer for employees (e.g., health insurance, vacation time, disability income). , were used toestimate and allocate faculty costs. The cost of school administrativeand staff support and university indirect costs Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a particular function or product; these are fixed costs. Indirect costs include taxes, administration, personnel and security costs. See alsoOperating cost were estimated percredit hour and allocated proportionately pro��por��tion��ate?adj.Being in due proportion; proportional.tr.v. pro��por��tion��at��ed, pro��por��tion��at��ing, pro��por��tion��atesTo make proportionate. to each course and individualinstructor on a credit hour basis. Full and partial tuition discounts or scholarships received bystudents were treated as costs and spread proportionately on a credithour basis to the total number of courses and course sections of the MSWand PhD programs in which they were known to accrue. As approved by thefederal government, university indirect costs were calculated as 62% offaculty salaries, excluding fringe benefits, and allocatedproportionately on a credit hour basis. The cost of faculty teachingrelease time was calculated on the basis of the fully loaded value(salary and fringe benefits, school administrative and staff support,and university indirect costs) of the courses from which 10 of the 16tenured ten��ured?adj.Having tenure: tenured civil servants; tenured faculty.Adj. 1. tenured or tenure-track faculty received a workload reduction to offsetassigned administrative or journal editorship duties, or time to prepareneeded publications for impending im��pend?intr.v. im��pend��ed, im��pend��ing, im��pends1. To be about to occur: Her retirement is impending.2. tenure review. No estimates wereattempted for travel and social functions. Multivariate analysis of variance and multiple regression were usedto obtain estimates of the statistical significance and size effects ofhypothesized relationships. All statistical presentations protect theanonymity of individual faculty members; they protect the privacy of theillustrative school, as well, by not designating specific dollar amountsfrom the budget. Results Class Size and Student Achievement CSWE's (1994) recommended student-faculty ratio for the BSWand MSW programs, while not an accreditation requirement, is a guideused for assessing educational quality (McMurtry & McClelland,1997). Too high a ratio is likely to raise questions about whether theprogram under review is able to meet its diverse student learning goalsand objectives. Everything else being equal, it seems logical to acceptthe idea that smaller classes are conducive to more efficient studentlearning and achievement. McMurtry and McClelland try to make theempirical case for the hypothesized relationship on the basis of Glass,Cahen, Smith, and Filby's (1979) work. Their meta-analysis of theresearch literature on the topic was conducted in primary and secondaryschools and supplemented by student satisfaction surveys on collegecampuses (Collison, 1991). Unfortunately, class size as described and measured in the citedliterature does not readily translate into student-faculty ratios. Classsize is defined as the number of students assigned to a teacher for aspecific period of group instruction. In contrast, the student-facultyratio is a measure that aggregates the entire student body of aneducational entity (school, program, grade, or enrollment cohort) andexpresses it as a ratio to the entire faculty involved in theirteaching. Average class size is a measure that aggregates the number ofstudents in the number of classes to which they are assigned and dividesit by the number of classes. As a summary statistic statistic,n a value or number that describes a series of quantitative observations or measures; a value calculated from a sample.statistica numerical value calculated from a number of observations in order to summarize them. , average class sizeis closer to the root meaning of class size than the student-facultyratio. Still, as Table 1 indicates, how average class size isoperationalized yields substantially different and inconsistent summarystatistics in relation to the student-faculty ratio that is calculatedusing the CSWE formula (McMurtry & McClelland, 1997). At theillustrative school of social work, the student-faculty ratiounderstates average class size by a small margin in the BSW program andoverstates it by a large margin in the MSW program. Similarly, thestudent-faculty ratio substantially understates average class size evenin the PhD program which has a small number of students spread over alarge and diverse menu of courses. Table 1. Average Class Size by Operational Definition, Spring 1998SemesterOperational Definition Average Class SizeAll programs, by official course schedule 13.9All programs, field students assigned 16.0 to one sectionBSW program, by official course schedule, 13.5 one field sectionMSW program, by official course schedule 19.0MSW program, one field section 24.8PhD program, by official course schedule 2.5BSW student-faculty ratio(a) 15.5MSW student-faculty ratio(b) 14.0PhD student-faculty ratio(c) 6.2Operational Definition SampleAll programs, by official course schedule 1,262 enrollment / 91 course sectionsAll programs, field students assigned 1,262 / 79 to one sectionBSW program, by official course schedule, 108 / 8 one field sectionMSW program, by official course schedule 1,065 / 56MSW program, one field section 1,065 / 43PhD program, by official course schedule 89 / 35 (28 independent study or dissertation guidance)BSW student-faculty ratio(a)MSW student-faculty ratio(b)PhD student-faculty ratio(c) (a) Unduplicated count of 62 full- and part-time students dividedby 6 faculty, including 4 adjuncts (weighted 0.5); CSWE (1994)recommended BSW standard is 25:1. (b) Unduplicated count of 309 full- and part-time students dividedby 30 faculty, including 16 adjuncts (weighted 0.5); the CSWE (1994)recommended MSW standard is 12:1. (c) Unduplicated count of 46 students divided by 8 faculty,including one adjunct (weighted 0.5); there is no CSWE recommendeddoctoral standard. What is more, how course sections are defined makes a bigdifference in the average class size calculation. Sectioning students infield education for purposes unrelated to teaching deflates averageclass size, thus creating artifactual ar��ti��factalso ar��te��fact ?n.1. An object produced or shaped by human craft, especially a tool, weapon, or ornament of archaeological or historical interest.2. data. The reality is that studentspay for and obtain 3.0 credit hours for two days per week of practiceexperience in a social work agency or setting under the supervision ofan MSW field educator in their first year, and 3.0 credit hours fortwo-and-one-half days per week in the second year. A single facultymember with ad ministrative min��is��tra��tion?n.1. The act or process of serving or aiding.2. The act of performing the duties of a cleric.[Middle English, from Old French, from Latin support arranges for all student placementsand, with input from the field educators, grades the students. Use of Adjunct Faculty The use of adjunct faculty in higher education is the subject ofextensive commentary and debate as well as political activity (Mydans,1995). The cause is well-known--a surplus of PhDs. As Will (1997)summarizes, The market for PhDs is glutted; only two in five get academic jobs. There are a million PhDs without academic employment, and some are in academia only as `freeway flyers,' driving between adjunct appointments on several campuses, paid perhaps $1,000 per course, with no benefits or faculty prerogatives. (p. 7) Mathews (1997) estimates that adjunct faculty currently account for40%-50% of all undergraduate teaching in contrast to 22% in the early1970s. In most places, efforts by adjunct faculty and graduate teachingassistants to organize for better pay, job security, and workingconditions fail (Goldberg, 1996; Goodnough, 1996; Williams, 1997). Feldman (1999) argues to the contrary that social work educationfaces a largely unrecognized crisis caused by an inadequate supply ofdoctoral instructors to staff the rapidly expanding number of BSW andMSW programs throughout the country. He acknowledges that the resultantproliferation proliferation/pro��lif��er��a��tion/ (pro-lif?er-a��shun) the reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.prolif��erativeprolif��erous pro��lif��er��a��tionn. of social work practitioners is depressing wages in thejob market but, nonetheless, urges investing to increase the supply ofdoctorally trained social work educators with advanced training instate-of-the-art research methods for evaluating practices and programs.How does his analysis squire with the more prevalent view about theglutted glut?v. glut��ted, glut��ting, glutsv.tr.1. To fill beyond capacity, especially with food; satiate.2. To flood (a market) with an excess of goods so that supply exceeds demand. PhD market? Feldman's analysis may be accurate nationally,but not so with respect to localized college and university job markets,wherein where��in?adv.In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned?conj.1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live.2. typically older, less mobile socal work doctoral graduates tendto concentrate and often work as adjuncts until a suitable positionopens for which they can apply. Thus, in the main, McMurtry and McClelland's assessment of thethreefold increase from 1987 to 1994 in use of adjunct faculty in socialwork education is accurate. Such use is exploitative, inconsistent withsocial work values, and the direct result of decisions made by schoolsand departments of social work throughout the country. However, Iquestion McMurtry and McClelland's causal theory that increases ofadjunct faculty was thrust on schools by the combination of increaseddemand for MSW education and decreased public support for highereducation. I argue to the contrary that colleges and universities haverecognized the unique properties of social work education that permitthe reaping of a windfall profit Windfall profitA sudden unexpected profit uncontrolled by the profiting party. or gain. The surplus of tuition revenuein social work programs after paying for direct and indirect costs,tuition discounts, and faculty teaching release time flows into thegeneral fund of the college or university for allocation elsewhere. Ananalysis of the tuition revenue and expense patterns at the illustrativeschool supports this argument. Figure 1 shows a net gain of 55.2% of tuition revenue, even afterliberally spending 15.5% for salaries and fringe benefits, 6.6% forschool-level administration and support, 8.6% for university indirectcosts, 5.6% for tuition discounts, and 8.5% for faculty teaching releasetime. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Figure 2 displays how the net gain in revenue is distributed acrossthe BSW, MSW, and PhD programs. Clearly, the MSW program is the largestsource of tuition revenue and more than offsets the 11.8% excess ofexpenses over tuition revenue in the PhD program. The small BSW programyields a net gain of 10.7% of tuition revenue. [Figure 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Figure 3 reveals why it is possible to spend only 15.5% forsalaries and fringe benefits to produce a net gain of 55.2% of tuitionrevenue. Tuition paid by students for field education is 25.0% of thenet gain; field educators receive no monetary reward for their services(Rohrer, Smith, & Peterson, 1992). The modest cost of running theoffice of field education consists of two thirds of the salary andfringe benefits of an assistant professor, plus the salary and fringebenefits of one part-time MSW assistant and one full-time secretary. [Figure 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Adjunct faculty teaching at the school produce almost 42% of thenet gain. What a bargain! The teaching of four assistant professors, twoof whom have reduced teaching loads and one with responsibilities splitbetween field education and teaching one course, yields 17.2% of the netgain. The teaching of nine associate professors, seven of whom havereduced teaching loads, produces almost 20% of the net gain. Theteaching of three ordinary professors, one of whom has a reducedteaching load, yields a 3.5% net loss. Table 2 presents the production function for the illustrativeschool, describing the relationship between net gain and factor inputsand their cost along with class size (scale). The two factors arestatistically significant independent predictors. As indicated by itsnegative regression coefficient Regression coefficientTerm yielded by regression analysis that indicates the sensitivity of the dependent variable to a particular independent variable. See: Parameter.regression coefficient, lower faculty status is associated withthe production of larger net gain. The positive regression coefficientof class size indicates that larger classes produce a larger net gain.The standardized regression coefficients indicate the relative influenceof each of the predictor variables. Class size ranks first, and facultystatus second. Table 2. Net Gain as Function of Class Size and Faculty Status,Spring 1998 SemesterVariable(a) B SE [Beta]Constant -1,401.97 2,460.22 0.00Class Size 1940.20 123.28 0.87Faculty Status -7,719.38 921.37 -0.46Variable(a) Tolerance T P (2-tail)Constant -0.57 0.570Class Size 0.95 15.74 0.000Faculty Status 0.95 -8.38 0.000Analysis of Variance(b)Source SS df MSRegression .276885E+11 2 .138443E+11Residual .774181E+10 76 .101866E+09Source F P (2-tail)Regression 135.91 0.000Residual (a) Operational definitions: Net gain--amount of tuition revenueminus direct and university indirect costs, amount of tuition discounts,and value of faculty teaching release time; class size--number ofstudents enrolled in the 79 courses and course sections taught in thespring 1998 semester; faculty status--type of academic appointment heldby class or class section instructor, coded "1" for adjunct,"2" for assistant professor, "3" for associateprofessor, or "4" for full professor. The zero-ordercorrelations were statistically significant between net gain and classsize (r=0.76; p=.000) and between net gain and faculty status (r=-0.27;p=.02), as well as between faculty status and class size (r=0.23;p=.04). (b) n=79 courses and course sections; multiple R=0.88; multipleR2-=0.78; adjusted multiple R2-=-0.78; SE=10,092.86. Clearly, minimizing the number of small classes taught by high-costfaculty, as in the doctoral program, will increase net gain.Alternatively, maximizing the number of large classes taught by low-costfaculty, as in the MSW program, will also increase net gain. Ideally,optimized student educational attainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1]The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the , measured in terms other thansimply the number of credit hours students earn per passing grade,should dictate the appropriate mix of predictor variable Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression)variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values values.Unfortunately, the illustrative school of social work and other schoolslike it throughout the country have no such measure to rely on; hence,considerations other than optimized student educational attainment weighheavily in determining the mix--especially faculty preferences forteaching release time and the administration's desire for maximizednet gain. Discussion Class Size and Student Achievement Given the problems with the calculation and interpretation of classsize, McMurtry and McClelland's (1997) suggestion that CSWE adoptand enforce a student-faculty ratio in the 6:1 to 9:1 range thatcurrently prevails in master's degree programs in communicationsciences, psychology, and other fields similar to social work isquestionable. There are sufficient arguments against doing so. First andforemost, adoption of a formalistic for��mal��ism?n.1. Rigorous or excessive adherence to recognized forms, as in religion or art.2. An instance of rigorous or excessive adherence to recognized forms.3. standard in this regard would likelydivert attention from possibly more potent factors affecting social workstudent learning and achievement in the classroom and field. The wisercourse is to focus the CSWE accreditation process on those factors whichare susceptible to change. As identified by educational researchers and subject toconsiderable commentary in the press, these factors include studentaptitude and readiness for undergraduate and graduate school education(Braun & Jones, 1985; Hepler & Noble, 1990; Mooney, 1989; Noble& Hepler, 1990; Specht, Britt britt?n.Variant of brit.Noun 1. britt - the young of a herring or sprat or similar fishbrityoung fish - a fish that is young2. , & Frost, 1984; Wilson, 1979,1982), remediation for ill-prepared and educationally disadvantagedstudents (Noble & Hepler, 1990; Thursz & Rothenberg, 1968),instructor subject matter expertise (Ravitch, 1998), understanding oflearning styles and processes as well as teaching and mind-leadingskills (e.g., Gardner, 1993; Gardner & Laskin, 1995), studentmotivation and effort (Leo Leo, in astronomyLeo[Lat.,=the lion], northern constellation lying S of Ursa Major and on the ecliptic (apparent path of the sun through the heavens) between Cancer and Virgo; it is one of the constellations of the zodiac. , 1996; Mathews, 1997; Sacks, 1996; Will,1997), widespread grade inflation and "watering down" ofstandards (Hepler & Noble, 1990; Leo, 1996; Mathews, 1997;; Mooney,1989; Noble & Hepler, 1990; Sacks, 1996; Specht et al., 1984; Will,1997), and, lastly, instructional time (Berliner & Fisher, 1985;Smyth, 1985). Relating these factors to social work educational outcomesand taking action through the CSWE accreditation process presents manyconceptual, methodological, value, and political challenges. Scholastic aptitude and educational disadvantage. Many social workeducators flatly reject the validity and use of standardized achievementtests as a guide to admissions decisions on the grounds that they arebiased against women and minorities. Some schools of social work usethem and others do not. Yet social work educators (Hepler & Noble,1990; Noble & Hepler, 1990; Specht et al., 1984) as well asnon-social work educators (Braun & Jones, 1985; Wilson, 1979, 1982)present evidence of the Graduate Record Exam's (GRE (Generic Routing Encapsulation) A tunneling protocol developed by Cisco that allows network layer packets to contain packets from a different protocol. It is widely used to tunnel protocols inside IP packets for virtual private networks (VPNs). ) predictivevalidity In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a scale predicts scores on some criterion measure.For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings. when the reputation and student performance requirements of theundergraduate or graduate school or department are taken into account. Students with comparable GRE scores not only exhibit similarprediction equations in different graduate schools and departmentswithin the same discipline, but also manifest a stronger associationbetween criterion and predictor variables in reputationally betterschools and departments (Braun &Jones, 1985). Social work applicantsfrom "prestige" undergraduate schools have been shown topresent lower grade point averages (GPA GPAabbr.grade point averageNoun 1. GPA - a measure of a student's academic achievement at a college or university; calculated by dividing the total number of grade points received by the total number attempted ) in relation to their GRE score,while applicants from "non-prestige" schools show the opposite(Noble & Hepler, 1990). In both cases, the explanation is thought tolie in the greater stress placed on academic ability and the carefulgrading standards that tend to prevail in the more prestigiousundergraduate and graduate schools and departments. To address this issue, the CSWE accreditation review process mighttake a closer look at student recruitment methods and the use ofstandardized tests and other data sources to screen applicants foradmission and educational planning. Action is needed to help the studentwho has been "passed along" with inflated grades from highschool to the two-year community college to upper division BSW coursesto an MSW program, where belated be��lat��ed?adj.Having been delayed; done or sent too late: a belated birthday card.[be- + lated. educational remediation comes at avery high price (Noble & Hepler, 1990). Thursz and Rothenberger(1968) long ago identified a variety of options and strategies forhelping the educationally disadvantaged MSW student, which could beinvoked if there is the will to act and sufficient prior knowledge.Among the relevant questions for the CSWE accreditation review team toask are: Are standardized tests used to screen candidates for admissionand, if so, what steps are taken to protect against cultural biases?What methods, if any, are used to identify and remediate re��me��di��a��tion?n.The act or process of correcting a fault or deficiency: remediation of a learning disability.re��me educationaldeficits and with what success? Subject matter expertise. Subject matter expertise in social workeducation varies widely. Just as teachers in primary and secondaryschools teach "out of field" with ill-effects (Ravitch, 1998),so too it can be a problem in social work education. The majority offaculty in schools of social work have expertise and experience inclinical social work. The need to incorporate content relating to socialpolicy, community organization, administration, and nonclinical groupwork into an accreditable curriculum often leads to the assignment ofclinically prepared faculty to teach such content. There is no doubtthat almost anybody can assign students a textbook to read and preparelecture notes from it, but would the practice be countenanced in theteaching of clinically oriented content? While representing a cost-savings for the school of social workbudget, "out of field" teaching assignments are a seriousthreat to student learning, skill development and, ultimately, theviability of professional social workers as macro-level practitioners.When hiring for upper- and middle-management positions, employers may bemore likely to select a candidate with a business, publicadministration, economics, or political science major and the rightcombination of subject matter expertise and experience than an MSWgraduate. Employers know what to ask when recruiting--especially whenmacrolevel knowledge and skills may be the key to organizationalsurvival and success in the new era of managed care. To address this issue, CSWE could relax its requirement thatpractice course instruction be provided only by MSW degree holders. Inthe event that the social work school or department lacks a facultymember with the requisite expertise and cannot recruit an adjunctsubstitute, why not permit MSW students to take the needed policy oradministration course elsewhere in the college or university with aninstructor who specializes in those areas? There should be minimalconcern that the appropriate social work value content would be lost,given the high doses of this content received throughout the rest of theMSW curriculum. Among the relevant questions for a CSWE accreditationreview team to ask are: What is the subject matter expertise ofinstructors teaching the macro-level courses? Do they teach up-to-datecontent relating to modern management methods, (e.g., use ofcomputerized planning and budgeting and management information systemsto monitor organizational performance)? Learning styles and processes. The instructor's understandingof studentlearning styles and processes, as well as teaching and mind-leadingskills are considered critical to student learning (e.g., Gardner, 1993;Gardner & Laskin, 1995). Yet, as Mathews describes (1997): Teaching is academe's most secretive aspect, even more than salaries and budgets; it is also one of the few human activities ... that does not get demonstrably better from one generation to the next .... On most American campuses, faculty may spend forty years together, and never once witness their closest colleagues dealing with live undergrads. (p. 195) The use of student evaluations often substitutes for peer review ofteaching. Unfortunately, it is mostly the untenured and vulnerableassistant professors and adjunct faculty who really care about what thestudents say. What is more, student evaluations tend to focus more onthe professor rather than on course content (Mathews, 1997). Thus,faculty and school representations about the learning that actuallytakes place are fraught fraught?adj.1. Filled with a specified element or elements; charged: an incident fraught with danger; an evening fraught with high drama.2. with subjectivity, and are unlikely to bevalidated by a visiting accreditation review team. The CSWE accreditation review process should focus on the teachingpreparation and experience of the entire social work faculty, includingthe numerous adjunct faculty and field educators who provideinstruction. Among the relevant questions for the CSWE accreditationreview team to ask are: How is teaching competence evaluated andimproved? Does the program require new faculty to obtain formal trainingor supervised practicum practicum (prak´tikm),n See internship. experience in teaching on the way to tenure?Does the school or department provide special recognition and monetaryrewards for outstanding teachers? What steps are taken to follow up onstudent complaints and with what outcomes? Grade inflation and erosion of standards. The literature of highereducation and popular commentary are filled with diatribes aboutdeclining student motivation, grade inflation, and the watering down ofstandards by colleges and universities (e.g., Leo, 1996; Mathews, 1997;Sacks, 1996; Will, 1997). Citing statistics from the 1995 University ofCalifornia The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). at Los Angeles Los Angeles(lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. Higher Education Research Institute survey ofcollege freshman, Leo concludes "current students are more easilybored and less willing to work hard" (p. 24). Will attributes theerosion of standards to the frantic chase of the education industry forraw material, "requiring only a pulse in one hand, a check in theother" (p. 7). Trying to avoid lawsuits resulting fromdisappointing grades is also thought to play a part. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Sacks, easy grading has become part of the entitlement bargain in higher education ... Few if any players in the system have much incentive to break the cycle of grade inflation. In fact, student consumers demand it, administrators seem to encourage it, and teachers who try to maintain rigorous grading standards expose themselves to ruinous student evaluations, dwindling class sizes, and possible loss of a job. (p. 167) The constriction constriction/con��stric��tion/ (kon-strik��shun)1. a narrowing or compression of a part; a stricture.constric��tive2. a diminution in range of thinking or feeling, associated with diminished spontaneity. in the range of grades to mostly A's with theoccasional B essentially precludes empirical assessment of studentlearning based on grades in undergraduate and graduate school programs(Noble & Hepler, 1990). It would also prevent a visitingaccreditation review team from making valid inferences in this regard. To address this issue, the CSWE accreditation review team could askquestions about grade constriction and why social work students are sohomogeneous in achievement. Other relevant questions to ask are: Do MSWstudents achieve higher graduate school grades than students in otherdisciplines on the same campus? Which courses, if any, disclosedifferences among MSW candidates, (e.g., research and statistics,policy, or administration as compared to clinically oriented courses)?And if so, why is this the case? Instructional time. A credit hour does not translate into the sameinstructional time in all institutions of higher education, or evenwithin the same institution. Under the critical gaze of state andfederal legislatures, public colleges or universities typically provide15 weeks of instruction per semester, with an estimated 2 hours and 40minutes of instructor teaching contact each week (U.S. House ofRepresentatives, 1993). In contrast, some private institutions provideas little as 1 hour and 40 minutes of instruction per week of class.Clearly, the 60% difference is significant. Are MSW students enrolled inthe two different programs being equivalently educated and prepared forpractice? Forty-five credit hours of abbreviated classes in the oneprogram are equal to 27 credit hours of longer classes in the other. Onewould guess that the 60% difference in instructional time would seem toaffect student learning more than class size. Indeed, Berliner andFisher (1985) conclude from their review of available research on theinfluence of instructional time that "after initial ability isaccounted for, no other educational variable is as useful in explainingdifferences in student achievement" (p. 337). Students, faculty, and college or university administrators havedifferent motives for preferring classes of shorter duration. Part-timestudents especially appreciate the lesser time commitment. Shorterclasses provide full- and part-time faculty with the opportunity toinvest the time savings in other activities. Administrators maximize thesurplus of tuition revenue after expenses (profit), and can justifypaying lower salaries to faculty on the basis of less instructionaltime. Lower salaries for abbreviated classroom teaching is offset bysavings in preparation time and the opportunity for faculty to devotemore time to research, other paid work activities, or leisure. Classesof shorter duration appear to provide a "win-win" opportunityfor all concerned--except perhaps future clients. If we take intoaccount the real possibility of diminished student learning andpreparation for professional practice, there is cause for concern.Should CSWE adopt a standard governing actual hours of class instructionbefore graduation? Although CSWE (1994) specifies at least 900 hours offield education as a graduation requirement, it is silent about thenumber of hours of class instruction which should be provided. Use of Adjunct Faculty Social work education affords colleges and universities theopportunity to make a large profit. What other disciplines than socialwork and perhaps teacher education permit the charging of tuition forthe concurrent use of donated facilities and services of field educationagencies by large numbers of students? Medicine and nursing must providepaid instructors to oversee patient care provided by student interns This article or section is written like an .Please help [ rewrite this article] from a neutral point of view.Mark blatant advertising for , using . .How many other disciplines permit use of large numbers of adjunctfaculty with a terminal professional degree less than the doctorate toteach on campus? Citing CSWE 1994 statistics, McMurtry and McClelland(1997) point out that less than 20% of non-tenure-track and part-timesocial work faculty hold the doctoral degree. These attributes inviteexploitation of social work education by the larger college oruniversity--especially when total enrollment is down and there are onlyone or two schools or departments that can make up for lost tuitionrevenue by expanding enrollment. In the context of institutionalsurvival needs, "exploitation" may be too strong a word todescribe the dynamics. At the same time, the sense that the school ordepartment of social work is being used as a cash cow Cash Cow1. One of the four categories (quadrants) in the BCG growth-share matrix that represents the division within a company that has a large market share within a mature industry.2. by the educationalinstitution in which it resides affects the morale and commitment of thesocial work faculty. Why would a faculty member bother to pursueexternal funding that will provide additional income to the college oruniversity under its negotiated indirect cost agreement with the federalgovernment? Why not instead maximize income from private practice orconsulting? The quality of education is surely diminished by thediversion of faculty energy away from campus pursuits (U.S. House ofRepresentatives, 1993). There is much truth in McMurtry and McClelland's charge thatadjunct faculty are receiving unjust UNJUST. That which is done against the perfect rights of another; that which is against the established law; that which is opposed to a law which is the test of right and wrong. 1 Toull. tit. prel. n. 5; Aust. Jur. 276, n.; Hein. Lec. El. Sec. 1080. treatment by MSW programs, apractice which blatantly bla��tant?adj.1. Unpleasantly loud and noisy: "There are those who find the trombones blatant and the triangle silly, but both add effective color"Musical Heritage Review. disregards the value commitments of the socialwork profession. Extracting two thirds of the surplus of tuition revenueover expenses from the use of adjunct faculty and the donated facilitiesand services of social work agencies is hard to justify. Further, sincelike the temporary work force in general, adjunct faculty aredisproportionately women and members of minority groups (Klein, Weisman,& Smith, 1996; McMurtry & McClelland, 1997; Parker, 1994), Thetreatment of adjuncts by social work programs in the manner of theillustrative school is a textbook example of what Phyllis Day (1997)might construe construev. to determine the meaning of the words of a written document, statute or legal decision, based upon rules of legal interpretation as well as normal meanings. in the feminist-welfare perspective as the oppression ofminorities and women. The sheer magnitude of the tuition revenue surplusargues for a more just distribution between the university and the workforce that produced it. There seems to be more than enough to go around. Another way of looking at the increased use of adjunct faculty seesthe contemporary college or university in transition from the 19thcentury ideal of faculty hegemony hegemony(hĭjĕm`ənē, hē–, hĕj`əmō'nē, hĕg`ə–), [Gr.,=leadership], dominance, originally of one Greek city-state over others, the term has been extended to refer to the dominance of one to a hierarchical corporate model thatseeks to maximize income-producing products. The latter model would doaway with tenure and put all employees on term contracts to achieveoptimal flexibility and response to rapidly changing conditions in thesocial, technological, economic and political environments (Ramo, 1998).In this view, the old-style college or university is an ossified os��si��fy?v. os��si��fied, os��si��fy��ing, os��si��fiesv.intr.1. To change into bone; become bony.2. dinosaur dinosaur(dī`nəsôr)[Gr., = terrible lizard], extinct land reptile of the Mesozoic era. The dinosaurs, which were egg-laying animals, ranged in length from 2 1-2 ft (91 cm) to about 127 ft (39 m). that gobbles up scarce resources without consideration of theconsequences (Masters, 1993; While Costs Rise, 1998). Questions arebeing raised about the rationality of lifelong tenure when so manyworkplaces are shifting to less job security and institutions mustremain flexible to respond to changing educational needs (Goldberg,1997). New age higher education promotes liaisons and cooperativeventures with private sector corporations in exchange for the infusionof needed capital to replace diminished public funding Public funding is money given from tax revenue or other governmental sources to an individual, organization, or entity. See alsoPublic funding of sports venues Research funding Funding body (Eggen &Youssef, 1998). While they acknowledge the risks of predicting futuretechnology and the shape of the work force, futurists such as Bills(1995) hazard the guess that full-time positions will decline in favorof freelance talent-for-hire. In this view, the increased use of adjunctfaculty is a harbinger har��bin��ger?n.One that indicates or foreshadows what is to come; a forerunner.tr.v. har��bin��gered, har��bin��ger��ing, har��bin��gersTo signal the approach of; presage. of the future. How should CSWE respond in this time of rapid change? The dignityof labor and the justice of paying a living wage are basic to the valuecommitments of social work. Even though some institutions of highereducation may wish to compromise these values for immediate gain, CSWEshould use the accreditation review process to resist. CSWEaccreditation review teams should not only evaluate course content forevidence that the principles of social justice are being taught, butalso for concrete evidence that they are being practiced. The analysisof tuition revenue and expenditure patterns for the illustrative schoolof social work can be replicated by any school or department of socialwork. If required as part of the CSWE accreditation review process, sitevisitors could use the analysis to raise questions about the use andqualifications of adjunct faculty as well as the adequacy and equity oftheir compensation. There are circumstances when the use of adjunctfaculty is entirely justified--especially to prevent "out offield" teaching by regular faculty. But when used, they shouldreceive just compensation for their services. Finally, as argued above, the CSWE accreditation review processshould jettison jettison(jĕt`əsən, –zən)[O.Fr.,=throwing], in maritime law, casting all or part of a ship's cargo overboard to lighten the vessel or to meet some danger, such as fire. use of mechanistic mech��a��nis��ticadj.1. Mechanically determined.2. Of or relating to the philosophy of mechanism, especially one that tends to explain phenomena only by reference to physical or biological causes. student-faculty ratios in judgingeducational program quality in favor of inquiry about efforts thatsocial work programs are making to deal with poorly prepared andmotivated students. They should also investigate falling academicstandards, grade inflation, and instructors who lack adequate teachingand mind-leading skills, understanding of student learning styles andprocesses, and expertise in the subject matter they teach. Given theprobable strength of the relationship between instructional time andstudent learning, CSWE might consider imposing a standard governing theactual number of hours of class instruction that students must receivebefore being awarded the MSW degree. While presenting many conceptual,methodological, value, and political challenges to CSWE, the benefitsthat may eventually accrue to successive cohorts of BSW and MSWgraduates and the clients whom they will serve would seem to justify theeffort. Taking action would be in keeping with the gatekeeping role ofsocial work education that has served the profession so well for thepast 100 years (Moore & Urwin, 1990). REFERENCES Berliner, D. C., & Fisher, C. W. (1985). One more time. In C.W. Fisher & D. C. Berliner, (Eds.), Perspectives on instructionaltime (pp. 333-347). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. 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Princeton, NJ:Educational Testing Service. Wilson, K. (1982). A study of the validity of the restructured GRIdaptitude test ap��ti��tude testn.An occupation-oriented test for evaluating intelligence, achievement, and interest. for predicting first-year performance in graduate study[GRE Board Research Report GREB No. 78-6R]. Princeton, NJ: EducationalTesting Service. Yamatani, H. (1990). Differential expenditures of BASW BASW British Association of Social WorkersBASW Bachelor's of Art in Social Work , MSW, anddoctoral programs: A direct cost analysis of a school of social work.Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 4(2), 173-186. Accepted 7/99. Address correspondence to: John H. Noble, Jr., National CatholicSchool of Social Service, Catholic University of America Catholic University of America,at Washington, D.C.; the national university of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States; coeducational; founded 1887 and opened 1889. , ShahanHall--Cardinal Station, Washington, DC 20064; e-mail: jhnob@erols.com. JOHN H. NOBLE, JR. is Endowed en��dow?tr.v. en��dowed, en��dow��ing, en��dows1. To provide with property, income, or a source of income.2. a. Professor for Social Justice,National Catholic School of Social Service, Catholic University ofAmerica.