Dating the onset of cereal cultivation in Britain and Ireland: the evidence from charred cereal grains.

Dating the onset of cereal cultivation in Britain and Ireland: the evidence from charred cereal grains. Introduction This paper reviews the evidence for the dating of the onset ofcereal cultivation in Britain and Ireland, based upon radiocarbon-datedremains of charred cereals and also of dated contexts containing charredcereals. Many more sites with charred cereal grains are now availablethan existed at the time of an earlier survey by Moffett et al. (1989).Although cereal remains are far less common on Neolithic sites than,say, charred hazelnuts, in part due to differing taphonomic factors(Jones 2000), this survey demonstrates that cereals are far morewidespread across the British Isles British Isles:see Great Britain; Ireland. than earlier surveys suggest,irrespective of irrespective ofprep.Without consideration of; regardless of.irrespective ofpreposition despitetheir dietary contribution (see Jones & Rowley-Conwy2007, for a recent review of the importance of cereals in NeolithicBritain). In addition, many more of these sites have associatedradiocarbon dates, an increasing number of which are high resolution AMS AMS - Andrew Message System dates. This provides the opportunity to make meaningful comments on thechronological distribution of the evidence for cereal cultivation, andits implications for our understanding of the appearance, adoption androle of cultigens in the Neolithic of Britain and Ireland. Cereal cultivation is one of the defining characteristicsassociated with a Neolithic lifestyle, yet there is considerable debateover the precise dating of the first appearance of agriculture in theBritish Isles. Several authors (e.g. Pilcher & Smith 1979; Edwards& Hirons 1984; Williams 1989; Simmons & Innes 1996; Edwards& McIntosh 1998; Innes et al. 2003) have highlighted the growingevidence from the pollen record for cereal-type pollen grains incontexts dating to the late Mesolithic, some as early as c. 5000 cal BC,often, though not exclusively, associated with evidence for vegetationdisturbance. This has been taken to suggest the possibility of earlypioneer agriculture up to several centuries prior to the generallyaccepted beginnings of the Neolithic in Britain and Ireland c. 4000 calBC. Precise dating of the onset of agriculture remains a key researchaim for prehistoric studies, since the possibility of early agriculturehas significant implications, both for our understanding of thetransition to the Neolithic, and of human-plant relationships in thelate Mesolithic. However, the evidence of cereal-type pollen grains, and theirinterpretation as proof of early, pre-Neolithic cereal cultivation,remains contentious, not least because of the difficulties inherent inseparating cereal-type pollen from that of wild grass pollen that makepositive identification of cereal cultivation uncertain (see Tweddle etal. 2005 for a recent review). Andersen (1979) separated Poaceae polleninto four groups (wild grasses, Hordeum group, Avena-Triticum group andSecale cereale Secale cerealecereal rye. Grown mainly as a grain crop for animal feed, production of rye bread and rye whisky. The crop may be infected with clavicepspurpurea. ). The Hordeum group (Barleys) includes only twocultivated species (Hordeum vulgate Vulgate(vŭl`gāt)[Lat. Vulgata editio=common edition], most ancient extant version of the whole Christian Bible. Its name derives from a 13th-century reference to it as the "editio vulgata. and Triticum monococcum), butseveral wild grass species, the Avena-Triticum group (Oats and Wheats)comprising only one wild grass species (Avena fatua), the remainderbeing those of cultigens. Cereal-type pollen of the Hordeum andAvena-Triticum groups are distinguished from wild grasses primarily onthe basis of mean pollen grain pollen grainn.A microspore of seed plants, containing a male gametophyte. and annulus annulus/an��nu��lus/ (an��u-lus) pl. an��nuli ? [L.] anulus. an��nu��lusor an��u��lusn. pl. an��nu��lus��es or an��nu��liA circular or ring-shaped structure. diameters (cereal pollengrains being larger than those of wild grass species), but also thesurface sculpturing of the pollen grain and the protrudance of theannulus. However, key distinguishing features are not always easy toidentify where variable preservation of pollen grains occur, in whichcase caution should be exercised in any identification based upon grainand annulus diameter alone. Large cereal-type grains can also occurthrough swelling of wild grass pollen mounted in glycerol glycerol,glycerin,glycerine,or 1,2,3-propanetriol(prō`pāntrī'ŏl), CH2OHCHOHCH2OH, colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting, syrupy liquid. jelly, and asa result of genetic mutation Noun 1. genetic mutation - (genetics) any event that changes genetic structure; any alteration in the inherited nucleic acid sequence of the genotype of an organismchromosomal mutation, mutation (e.g. polyploidy PolyploidyThe occurrence of related forms possessing chromosome numbers which are multiples of a basic number (n), the haploid number. Forms having 3n chromosomes are triploids; 4n, tetraploids; 5n, pentaploids, and so on. ), commonplace amongst themajority of plant species. In addition, several palaeoenvironmentalstudies have also produced cereal-type pollen grains from contextssignificantly pre-dating the Neolithic (e.g. O'Connell 1987;Tweddle et al. 2005), including late glacial contexts (O'Connell etal. 1999) that most probably represent wild grasses or unusually largepolyploid pol��y��ploidadj.Having extra sets of chromosomes.n.An organism with more than two sets of chromosomes.pol grains. It is the opinion of this author, given the inherentuncertainties regarding the cereal-type pollen record, that the onlypositive evidence for early cultivation is the presence of charredcereal grains from securely stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. and well-dated contexts. Results A total of 93 sites with charred cereal remains have beencatalogued from across the British Isles. This by no means represents acomplete inventory of sites with charred cereals, although every efforthas been made to include those sites with accompanying radiocarbondates. Additional records from archive reports are, however, listed inJones and Rowley-Conwy (2007: Table 1). Cereal impressions on pottery,ard marks and saddle querns have been excluded from this survey.Although cereal impressions on pottery suggest cultivation, there is nomeans of accurately determining for how long a pot was in use prior todeposition. Additionally, only two sites with cereal grain impressionshave accompanying radiocarbon dates, and at Windmill Hill Windmill Hill is a Neolithic causewayed enclosure in the English county of Wiltshire, situated around 1 mile (2 km) north west of Avebury. It is the largest example of its type in the British Isles enclosing an area of 85,000 square metres. are associatedwith charred cereal grains anyway (Whittle et al. 1999). The presence ofard marks below megalithic meg��a��lith?n.A very large stone used in various prehistoric architectures or monumental styles, notably in western Europe during the second millennium b.c. chambered tombs provide tantalising Adj. 1. tantalising - arousing desire or expectation for something unattainable or mockingly out of reach; "a tantalizing taste of success"tantalizinginviting - attractive and tempting; "an inviting offer"2. evidencefor possible cultivation prior to megalithic construction, but, otherthan South Street, Wiltshire (Evans 1971), do not have accompanyingradiocarbon dates, do not include associated charred cereal remains, andmay, alternatively, represent 'ritual' preparation of the soilprior to monument construction. Saddle querns were excluded as theycould equally have been used for the processing of wild plants. Of these 93 sites, 44 (48 per cent) are from England, 28 (30 percent) are from Scotland, 16 (17 per cent) are from Ireland, and 5 (5 percent) are from Wales. However, radiocarbon dates are available from only58 of these sites, totalling 112 radiocarbon dates (Figure 1). Only 38of these dates are derived from charred cereal grains, representing 11of the 58 sites (19 per cent). Roughly half of English and Irish siteswith charred cereal remains have associated radiocarbon determinations.This compares to 86 per cent of Scottish and 80 per cent of Welsh sites,though in the latter case this represents only four sites. Disparitiesexist, therefore, between England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, not onlyin the number of sites from which charred cereals have been recovered,but in the radiocarbon coverage of these sites. The precision of these radiocarbon dates vary enormously, primarilyas a function of differences in standard error between samples.Radiocarbon dates with large standard error will produce largecalibrated date ranges and vice versa VICE VERSA. On the contrary; on opposite sides. . Standard errors of [+ or -] 150accompany the radiocarbon dates from both Hembury and Townleyhall, andin such cases should be interpreted with extreme caution. Accuracy isfurther reduced where dates fall on plateaux on the calibration curve In analytical chemistry, a calibration curve is a general method for determining the concentration of a substance in an unknown sample by comparing the unknown to a set of standard samples of known concentration. .For example, radiocarbon dates with similar standard errors will producedifferent calibrated date ranges dependant on Adj. 1. dependant on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress"contingent on, contingent upon, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent their position on thecalibration curve, with those dates falling on plateaux producing largerdate ranges. The radiocarbon determinations presented here are,therefore, interpreted on the basis of the calibrated rather thanuncalibrated dates, bearing in mind the above caveats regardingprecision. Radiocarbon dates are calibrated using atmospheric data fromReimer et al. (2004) and OxCal v.3.10 (Bronk-Ramsey 2005), quoted at95.4 per cent confidence. The dates are presented as a multiplot inFigure 1. The 112 calibrated radiocarbon dates presented in Figure 1 cover atime period from 4713 to 2190 cal BC. A key aim has been todifferentiate between radiocarbon dates derived from charred cereals asopposed to dates derived from charcoal from contexts containing charredcereals. The significant problem when dating charcoal is the possibilitythat the sample is derived from 'old wood' already centuriesold at the time of deposition, or is intrusive within a later feature.This is evident from Billown, Isle of Man Noun 1. Isle of Man - one of the British Isles in the Irish SeaManBritish Isles - Great Britain and Ireland and adjacent islands in the north Atlantic , where charcoal from two pits(F526 and F68) containing charred cereals, cut into the earliest ditchof a causewayed enclosure Causewayed enclosures are a type of large prehistoric earthworks common to the early Neolithic Europe. More than 100 examples are recorded in France, 70 in England and further sites are known in Scandinavia, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Northern Ireland and Slovakia. , produced early dates of 5780 [+ or -] 40 BP(Beta-125768, 4713-4549 cal BC) and 5680 [+ or -] 40 BP (Beta-125767,4542-4464 cal BC, Darvill 1999). A subsequent programme of radiocarbondating on charred cereals produced consistently later dates than thosederived from charcoal. Charred cereals from F526 produced a date of 4495[+ or -] 40 BP (OxA-10140, 3360-3030 cal BC, Darvill 2000), 1200-1700years older than the previous charcoal date. The difference in dates istoo great alone to suggest old wood, as north-west-European deciduous deciduous/de��cid��u��ous/ (de-sid��u-us) falling off or shed at maturity, as the teeth of the first dentition. de��cid��u��ousadj.1. trees such as oak typically do not live for more than c. 500 years. Thissuggests that the earlier date is most-probably derived from intrusivecharcoal deposited within a much later feature. The majority of radiocarbon dates fall within the fourth millenniumcal BC (Figure 1), with a marked concentration of calibrated date-rangesdistributed between 3800-3300 cal BC. Only a very small number of siteswith cereal remains produced dates within the third millennium cal BC.The earliest radiocarbon dates, all derived from charcoal, are from theHembury causewayed enclosure, dated to 5280 [+ or -] 150 BP (BM-138,4450-3780 cal BC) and 5100 [+ or -] 150 BP (BM-130, 4350-3600 cal BC:Moffett et al. 1989). This is comparable to an early date of 5145 [+ or-] 80 BP (4250-3700 cal BC) from Cowrie road, Bannockburn (Rideout1997). However, the large standard errors of the Hembury dates ([+ or -]150) and large calibrated date ranges (550-750 years) render these dateshighly unreliable indicators of the earliest cereal cultivation. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Radiocarbon dates on charcoal from Gwernvale, Bog Head, Ballygalleyand Lismore Fields produced date-ranges covering c. 350 years, extendingback from as early as c. 4000-3950 cal BC, whilst a slightly laterradiocarbon date of 5130 [+ or -] 60 BP (AA-20409) from Cowrie roadproduced a date-range between 4050-3770 cal BC (Rideout 1997). Charcoalfrom contexts containing cereals at Ballyharry site 1 produced a date of5184 [+ or -] 25 BP (UB-4202, 4045-3955 cal BC, McSparron 2003), adate-range at a 95 per cent confidence of only 90 years. However, thepossibility that these early dates are derived from old wood should notbe excluded. The earliest dates on charred cereals from Lismore Fieldsand Billown, of 4930 [+ or -] 70 BP (OXA-2434) and 4930 [+ or -] 55 BP(OxA-10140) produced date-ranges between 3930/3950-3630 cal BC.Radiocarbon dates derived from charcoal would suggest cereal cultivationfirst occurring perhaps as early as 4050 cal BC, but no later than 3770cal BC. However, dates on charred cereals suggest cultivation firstoccurring no earlier than 3950 cal BC, but no later than 3630 cal BC. Discussion Contrary to the evidence for early pioneer cultivation at c. 5000cal BC suggested by the cereal-type pollen record, the evidence fromcharred cereals suggests cultivation first occurring no earlier than c.3950 cal BC and certainly no later than 3630 cal BC. The combined daterange for 'first' cultivation derived from charred cereals anddated contexts containing cereals of c. 400 years is unacceptably largeat present. This date range can only be tightened further by repeat AMSdating charred cereals from those sites with earlier dates currentlyderived from charcoal (e.g. Ballygally, Ballyharry and Cowrie Road), andon which some caution must be exercised because of the possibility ofearlier dates derived from old wood. The earliest dates for firstcultivation from charred cereals are 100 years later in date (c. 3950cal BC) than the earliest dates derived from charcoal (c. 4050 cal BC).The interpretation advanced here, on the basis of the presentradiocarbon data, suggests limited cultivation of cereals at c.3950-3800 cal BC, with the majority of the dates distributed between3800-3000 cal BC, followed by a significant reduction in the evidencefor crop cultivation during the later Neolithic. The radiocarbon dates from this study accord well with theaccumulated radiocarbon dating evidence for the origins of megalithictombs in both Ireland (Sheridan 2003), England, Scotland and Wales(Schulting & Whittle 2003) that show a small number of dates aroundc. 4000-3900 cal BC, with the majority of dates falling between3800-3500 cal BC. The dating evidence from Cotswold-Severn tombs,recently synthesised by Darvill (2004), suggest tomb constructionlargely beginning around c. 3800 cal BC, with dates on human bonesgenerally falling between 3800-3000 cal BC. Recent AMS dates on humanbone from Burn Ground, Gloucestershire have produced a series ofcalibrated date-ranges between 3930-3700 cal BC, with an early date of4230-3970 cal BC that may represent long-term curation of ancestralremains, rather than a Mesolithic origin for tomb construction (Smith& Brinkley 2006). Radiocarbon dates on houses from Ireland (Grogan2002), Scotland (Barclay 1996; 2003), England and Wales England and Wales are both constituent countries of the United Kingdom, that together share a single legal system: English law. Legislatively, England and Wales are treated as a single unit (see State (law)) for the conflict of laws. (Darvill 1996;Mercer 2003) also show a number of early dates between 4050-3950 cal BCand 3900/3800 cal BC (see online Table 1 athttp://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/brown). However, McSparron (2003)has recently suggested that early (c. 4050-3950 cal BC) dates from IrishNeolithic houses may be displaying an 'old wood' effect, with'non old-wood' samples consistently producing determinationson houses within a date-range of 3800-3520 cal BC. Pottery traditionsalso seem to become established over most of Britain and Ireland between4000-3800 cal BC (Herne 1988). Furthermore, dendrochronological dates onthe Sweet Track, the earliest wooden structure in the British Isles,place its construction at 3806/7 cal BC (Coles & Coles 1986).Causewayed enclosures appear to be a slightly later feature of the earlyNeolithic landscapes, with some dates for construction occurring aroundc. 3800 cal BC (e.g. Barclay 2001; Sheridan 2001), but with aconcentration between 3650-3300 cal BC (Oswald et al. 2001). These dates seems to suggest an apparent uniform appearance ofvarious elements associated with a Neolithic lifestyle from c. 4000-3950cal BC, but that only seem to become an established feature of theNeolithic landscape from c. 3800 cal BC. Moreover, Schulting and Whittle(2003) highlight that there is little spatio-temporal patterning in theradiocarbon dates from chambered tombs across the British Isles, andthis is reflected in the dates associated with charred cereals andhouses, suggesting, as Schulting and Whittle (2003) argue for, a'rapid, and therefore, potentially ... interconnectedphenomenon' across Britain and Ireland. However, this apparent'interconnected phenomenon' may hide a more complex pattern ofNeolithic 'origins' during the initial centuries of the fourthmillennium cal BC (3950-3800 cal BC), one that may only become moreobvious through continued and repeated AMS dating of early Neolithiccontexts. This might see an early origin for cultivation, domesticstructures and mortuary traditions within particular pockets of theNeolithic landscape around c. 3950 cal BC, perhaps reflecting changingindividual community life-ways that did not become a more establishedfeature of the Neolithic landscape until c. 3800 cal BC. Richards et al. (2003) recently argued for a sharp shift in dietaryintake from marine to terrestrial resources over theMesolithic-Neolithic transition rather than the long drawn outtransition favoured by others (e.g. Thomas 1999). The radiocarbon datingevidence from charred cereals, burial monuments and domestic structurescould be taken to suggest a period of perhaps as little as 150-200 yearsat the beginning of the fourth millennium cal BC (4000-3800 cal BC)where traditional hunter-gatherer life-ways persisted amongstcommunities 'experimenting' with 'elements' of aNeolithic lifestyle before becoming more widely established. Evidencefor the continued accumulation of shell middens along the British andIrish coastlines into the early Neolithic, and the widespread evidencefor the continued exploitation of wild plant resources throughout theNeolithic (e.g. Moffett et al. 1989; Jones 2000; Robinson 2000)demonstrate that some elements of a hunter-gathering lifestyle did notdisappear completely. Schulting and Richards (2002) have argued that there is very littlein the way of supporting evidence for models hypothesising a gradualtransition. The hypothesis advanced here is that this transition mayhave occurred within the 150-200 years from 4000/3950-3800 cal BC. It isnot presently possible to refine this chronology because of a plateau inthe calibration curve from 3950-3800 cal BC that means even AMS dates atthis crucial point, could, conceivably, fall anywhere within this200-year period. This does not explain away the concentration of datesfrom 3800-3000 cal BC, but it does highlight that radiocarbon datingalone is not the key to refining our understanding of this crucial200-year period at the beginning of the Neolithic. A further aspect of the calibrated date ranges for cultivationpresented here, is the distribution of the majority of dates between3800-3000 cal BC, and the comparatively few dates following 3000 cal BC.This accords well with the pollen evidence from Ireland for cerealcultivation, recently synthesised by O'Connell and Molley (2001),that is argued to show a concentration of farming in the earlierNeolithic c. 3800-3000 cal BC, with minimal levels of farmingthereafter. However, debate has tended to centre on the relativecontribution of cereals to Neolithic subsistence strategies (e.g. Jones2000), that, irrespective of whether one sees them playing a significantdietary role or not, does little to explain the concentration ofevidence for cultivation during the fourth millennium cal BC. Dark andGent (2001) have recently argued that the probable relative resistanceto pests and diseases of the principal prehistoric crops, grown atlow-intensity within a predominantly wooded landscape, combined withoptimal climatic and soil conditions, may have resulted in a'honeymoon' period for crop cultivation in north-westernEurope during the early Neolithic characterised by initially high cropyields. While the probable initial resistance of crops to pests anddiseases may have been attractive to early Neolithic people, the closerelationship between the dates from charred cereals, chambered tombs andhouses, suggest that other factors, both social, cultural and economic,as well as environmental, interacted variously in determined theadoption of cultivation and subsequent patterns of land-use across theBritish Isles. Conclusion Radiocarbon dates on charred cereals suggest that the onset of cropcultivation in Britain and Ireland occurred no earlier than c. 3950 calBC. However, radiocarbon dates derived from charcoal from contextscontaining charred cereals suggest cultivation occurring perhaps asearly as c. 4050 cal BC. The possibility that these dates may derivefrom samples of old wood requires testing by AMS dating of the charredcereals from these sites. The onset of cereal cultivation indicated by charred cereal grainsis in broad agreement with the earliest dates from megalithic chamberedtombs and domestic structures from Britain and Ireland. Only a smallnumber of dates fall between 4000/3950 and 3800 cal BC, the majorityoccurring from 3800-3000 cal BC, with less evidence for cultivationthereafter. The present dating evidence suggests a transitional period ofperhaps some 150-200 years between 4000/3950 and 3800 cal BC before aNeolithic lifestyle became a more established feature of the British andIrish landscapes. This lends support to recent theories hypothesising arapid rather than gradual transition from Mesolithic to Neolithiclifeways. The consistency of the dating evidence from cereals, tombs anddomestic structures, argues against dates for crop cultivation as earlyas c. 5000 cal BC suggested by the cereal-type pollen evidence. It isconsidered more probable that these pollen grains are derived from wildgrasses rather than cultigens. Acknowledgments This paper developed from aspects of the author's doctoralresearch, funded by a University of Reading post-graduate scholarshipheld in the Department of Archaeology, supervised by Professor MartinBell and Dr Petra Dark. I am grateful to Richard Bradley for comments onearlier drafts of this paper, and to Cormac McSparron for access torecently published data on the Neolithic houses at Enagh, Co Derry. I amalso grateful to the referees for their comments, and, in particular,Peter Rowley-Conwy for access to material in press at the time ofwriting. Received: 23 November 2006; Accepted: 23 April 2007; Revised: 10May 2007 References ANDERSEN, S. TH. 1979. Identification of wild grass and cerealpollen. Danmarks Geologiske Undersogelse. Arborg. 1978: 69-92. BARCLAY, G.J. 1996. Neolithic buildings in Scotland, in T. Darvill& J. Thomas (ed.) 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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology Noun 1. palaeoclimatology - the study of the climate of past agespaleoclimatologyarchaeology, archeology - the branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric people and their cultures , Palaeoecology paleoecology, palaeoecologythe branch of ecology that studies the relationship of ancient plants and animals to their environments. — paleoecologic, palaeoecologic, paleoecological, palaeoecological, adj. 147: 169-208. OSWALD, A., C. DYER & M. BARBER. 2001. The creation ofmonuments: Neolithic enclosures in the British Isles. London: EnglishHeritage English Heritage is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) with a broad remit of managing the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. . PILCHER, J.R. & A.G. SMITH. 1979. Palaeoecologicalinvestigations at Ballynagilly: a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement inCo. Tyrone, Northern Ireland Northern Ireland:see Ireland, Northern. Northern IrelandPart of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland occupying the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland. Area: 5,461 sq mi (14,144 sq km). Population (2001): 1,685,267. . Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, or Phil. Trans., is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society.Begun in 1665, it is the oldest scientific journal printed in the English-speaking world and the second oldest in the world, of London B286: 345-69. REIMER, P.J., M.G.L. BAILLIE, E. BARD, A. BAYLISS, J.W. BECK, C.BERTRAND, P.G. BLACKWELL, C.E. BUCK, G. BURR, K.B. CUTLER, P.E. DAMON,R.L. EDWARDS, R.G. FAIRBANKS, M. FRIEDRICH, T.P. GUILDERSON, K.A.HUGHEN, B. KROMER, F.G. McCORMAC, S. MANNING, C. BRONK RAMSEY, R.W.REIMER, S. REMMELE, J.R. SOUTHON, M. STUIVER, S. TALAMO, F.W. TAYLOR, J.VAN DER DER - Distinguished Encoding Rules PLICHT & C.E. WEYHENMEYER. 2004. IntCal04 terrestrialradiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 Cal kyr BE Radiocarbon 46: 1029-58. RIDEOUT, J.S. 1997. Excavation of a Neolithic enclosure at CowrieRoad, Bannockburn, Stirling, 1984-5. Proceedings of the Society ofAntiquaries of Scotland The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland is the senior antiquarian body in Scotland, with its headquarters, collections, archive, and lecture theatre in the Royal Museum, Chambers Street, Edinburgh. The Society plays an important role in the cultural life and heritage of Scotland. 127: 29-68. RICHARDS, M.P., R.J. SCHULTING & R.E.M. HEDGES. 2003. Sharpshift in diet at onset of Neolithic. Nature 425: 366. ROBINSON, M.A. 2000. Further consideration of Neolithic charredcereals, fruits and nuts, in A.S. Fairbairn (ed.) Plants in NeolithicBritain and beyond (Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers 5): 85-90.Oxford: Oxbow. SCHULTING, R.J. & M.P. RICHARDS. 2002. The wet, the wild andthe domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. : the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition on the west coastof Scotland. Journal of European Archaeology 5 (2): 147-89. SCHULTING, R.J. & A. WHITTLE. 2003. Construction and primaryuse of chambered tombs in England, Wales and Scotland, in C. Scarre, P.Arias, G. Burenhult, M. Fano, I. Oosterbeek, R.J. Schulting, A. Sheridan& A. Whittle: Megalithic chronologies, in G. Burenhult & S.Westergaard (ed.) Stone and Bones. Formal Disposal of the Dead inAtlantic Europe during the Mesalithic-Neolithic Interface 6000-3000 BC(British Archaeological Reports International Series 1201): 65-111.Oxford: Archaeopress. SHERIDAN, A. 2001. Donegore Hill and other Irish Neolithicenclosures: a view from the outside, in T. Darvill & J. Thomas (ed.)Neolithic enclosures in Atlantic northwest Europe (Neolithic StudiesGroup Seminar Series Papers 6): 171-89. Oxford: Oxbow. --2003. The chronology of Irish megalithic tombs Most of my Information comes from the Shire Archaeology - Irish Megalithic Tombs. Ireland has a whole wealth of historical monuments which are most impressive.In Ireland there are four types of tombs: The Court Cairns, The Passage Tombs, Wedge tombs and Portal Dolmans. , in C. Scarre, P.Arias, G. Burenhult, M. Fano, I. Oosterbeek, R.J. Schulting, A. Sheridan& A. Whittle: Megalithic chronologies, in G. Burenhult & S.Westergaard (ed.) Stone and Bones. Formal Disposal of the Dead inAtlantic Europe during the Mesolithic-Neolithic Interface 6000-3000 BC(British Archaeological Reports International Series 1201): 65-111.Oxford: Archaeopress. SIMMONS, I.G. & J.G. INNES. 1996. Disturbance phases in themid-Holocene vegetation at North Gill, North York moors: form andprocess. Journal of Archaeological Science 23: 183-91. SMITH, M. & M. BRINKLEY. 2006. The date and sequence of use ofNeolithic funerary fu��ner��ar��y?adj.Of or suitable for a funeral or burial.[Latin fner monuments: new AMS dating evidence from theCotswold-Severn region. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25(4): 335-56. THOMAS, J. 1999. Understanding the Neolithic. London: Routledge. TWEDDLE, J.C., K.J. EDWARDS & N.R.J. FIELLER. 2005.Multivariate statistical and other approaches for the separation ofcereal from wild Poaceae pollen using a large Holocene dataset.Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14: 15-30. WHITTLE, A.W.R., J. POLLARD & C. GRIGSON. 1999. The harmony ofsymbols: the Windmill Hill causewayed enclosure. Oxford: Oxbow. WILLIAMS, E. 1989. Dating the introduction of food production intoBritain and Ireland. Antiquity 63: 510-21. Alex Brown, Department of Archaeology, School of Human andEnvironmental Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 227,Reading RG6 6AB, UK (Email: a.d.brown@reading.ac.uk)