Darwin among the archaeologists: the John Evans nexus and the Borneo Caves.

Darwin among the archaeologists: the John Evans nexus and the Borneo Caves. The two decades from 1860 to 1880 were one of the most formativeperiods in the emergence of modern attitudes to scientific inquiry inEngland, in what were later to become the specialized disciplines of thenatural and human sciences. At this high point of Victorian prosperity asmall group of scholars established both the principal questions forfuture research, and the character of the institutions which were topursue them, in increasingly professional ways, during the followingcentury. Most of the men (for it was an overwhelmingly male community)who were involved with these developments had independent means, eitheras inherited wealth or as a result of their own involvement in businessaffairs; and in consequence they were less restricted in pursuit oftheir interests than many of their successors who occupied paidpositions in scientific institutions and universities (Levine 1986; cf.Chapman 1998). Many, indeed, were notable polymaths, and the committeeswhich convened to organize the prosecution of a range of inquiries ontopics of natural history and broadly anthropological or archaeologicalquestions were composed of the same set of recurring names. This shortnote records one such episode in 1878, towards the end of that favouredperiod, which brought together some names which are famous in thenarratives of their own disciplinary histories, and illustrates thesocial and financial ties which linked them. John Evans and the Victorian scientific community (Sir) John Evans (1823-1908, FRS FRSabbr.Fellow of the Royal SocietyFRS,n “flexed rotated side-bent,” an osteopathic abbreviation used to describe vertebral position in cases of spinal dysfunction. 1864, KCB KCB(in Britain) Knight Commander of the Bath 1892) was typical of theknowledgeable amateur participation made possible by a successfulbusiness career as a paper-maker (Evans 1943). Beginning with aninterest in numismatics (and especially the pre-Roman coins ofVerulamium, near to his factory at Nash Mills in Hertfordshire), hepublished a pioneer article on Celtic coins in 1849, a major work on thesubject, The Coins of the Ancient Britons in 1864, and an application ofDarwinian natural selection to numismatics in 1875; but he had alreadybeen a Fellow of the Geological Society since 1857, and even publishedoriginal observations on the brain of Archaeopteryx Archaeopteryx(är'kēŏp`tərĭks)[Gr.,=primitive wing], most primitive known bird, a 150 million-year-old fossil of which was first discovered in 1860 and described the following year in the late Jurassic limestone of Solnhofen, in 1865. However,his reputation as a natural scientist stemmed principally from hisinvolvement (with his friend (Sir) Joseph Prestwich, then awine-merchant but later Professor of Geology at Oxford) in making knownthe discoveries made by Boucher de Perthes in the Somme gravels aroundAbbeville during the 1850s. Both Englishmen had connections with Francethrough their respective business dealings. Prestwich was particularlyconcerned with Pleistocene (`drift') deposits and their extinctfaunas, Evans with antiquities; so that reports of the association offlint artefacts with elephant and rhinoceros rhinoceros,massive hoofed mammal of Africa, India, and SE Asia, characterized by a snout with one or two horns. The rhinoceros family, along with the horse and tapir families, forms the order of odd-toed hoofed mammals. bones aroused theircuriosity and led to their famous trip with other members of theGeological Society in May 1859 when they observed the associationdirectly (Grayson 1983; Van Riper 1993; Coye 1997). Prestwich'spaper reporting these observations to the Royal Society that month wasmatched by Evans' paper on the flints to the Society of Antiquaries Society of Antiquaries can refer to: Society of Antiquaries of London Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland in June, following a meeting at Nash Mills with its Director, (Sir) A.W.Franks of the British Museum (Evans 1860; 1862; Prestwich 1861). Evansalso gave a verbal account of the flints at the Royal Society meeting,to an audience which included Sir Charles Lyell, Roderick Murchison,T.H. Huxley, Michael Faraday faraday/far��a��day/ (F ) (far��ah-da) the electric charge carried by one mole of electrons or one equivalent weight of ions, equal to 9.649 �� 104coulombs. far��a��dayn. and Charles Babbage -- a cross-section ofthe Victorian scientific elite. This occasion, crucial to the acceptance of a high antiquity forhumanity, was the foundation of Evans' reputation in the scientificcommunity, and led to lasting contacts -- especially with Lyell(originally a lawyer before turning to geology) and Huxley (a risingstar in London scientific circles), but also a growing involvement withfellow-antiquarian (Sir) John Lubbock (later Lord Avebury), member of aprosperous banking family and later a Liberal politician, now best knownfor his archaeological work (and notably his book Prehistoric Times of1865). A neighbour of Darwin in Kent, Lubbock was also a friend andprotege, and it was perhaps through his intermediacy that Evans wasencouraged to consult the expert naturalist and by then famous author ofThe Origin of Species. (1) Evans' reputation amongst geologists was high. Lyell (who hadstayed as a guest at Nash Mills) made frequent reference to hisexpertise in the Antiquity of Man (`my friend Mr Evans, before cited...' 1863: 187), and the copy he sent personally to Evans inadvance of publication has a handwritten hand��write?tr.v. hand��wrote , hand��writ��ten , hand��writ��ing, hand��writesTo write by hand.[Back-formation from handwritten.]Adj. 1. dedication. It was a particularsatisfaction to Evans to receive in 1880 the Lyell Medal of theGeological Society. Huxley, too, became a personal friend. As one of thefew professional scientists (and poorly paid: he was on more than oneoccasion assisted financially by Darwin), he was frequently involvedwith the running of scientific institutions and served in severaloffices in many of them; and in these capacities he often had occasionto be grateful for Evans' organization and sense of business (e.g.Evans 1943; 156). Evans continued to correspond with Huxley on a widerange of matters, and one letter of 1890 indicates the breadth of theirshared interests (Huxley 1900): The Grand Hotel, Eastbourne August 12, 1890 My dear Evans -- I have read your address [to the AnthropologicalSection of the British Association, 1890] returned herewith here��with?adv.1. Along with this.2. By this means; hereby.herewithAdverbFormal together with this: with a greatdeal of interest, as I happen to have been amusing myself lately withreviewing the `Aryan' question according to the new lights (ordarknesses). ... I rather think there were people who fought the fallacy oflanguage being a test of race before Broca -- among them thy servant --who got into considerable hot water on the subject for a lecture on theforefathers forefathersnpl → antepasados mplforefathersnpl → anc��tres mplforefathersnpl → Vorfahren and forerunners of the English people, delivered in 1870.Tylor says that Cuno was the first to to insist on the proposition thatrace is not co-extensive with language in 1871. That is all stuff. Thesame thesis had been maintained before I took it up, but I cannotremember by whom. ... I would not state the case so strongly against theprobabilities of finding a pliocene man. A pliocene Homo skeleton mightanalogically an��a��log��i��cal?adj.Of, expressing, composed of, or based on an analogy: the analogical use of a metaphor.an be expected to differ no more from that of modern man thanthe Oeningen Canis from modern Canes, or pliocene horses from modernhorses. If so, he would undoubtedly be a man -- genus Homo -- even ifyou made him a distinct species. For my part I should by no means beastonished to find the genus Homo represented in the Miocene, say theNeanderthal man with rather smaller brain capacity, longer arms, andmore moveable great toe, but at most specifically different. ... Hope they gave you a better lunch at Gloucester than we didhere. We'll treat you better next time in our own den. With thewife's kindest regards -- Ever yours very faithfully, T. H. Huxley Evans was a natural organizer, and played a leading role inarranging the International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology andAnthropology, held in Norwich and London in 1868, which marked aturning-point in the emergence of the discipline in Europe (Kaeser, thisvolume); but this international dimension was founded upon a richlynetworked set of connections between the various establishedinstitutions of national scholarship (Evans 1900). Besides hisVice-Presidency of the Royal Society, Evans acted as President of theNumismatic nu��mis��mat��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to coins or currency.2. Of or relating to numismatics.[French numismatique, from Late Latin numisma, numismat-, Society (1874), was Vice-President of the Society ofAntiquaries (1876), and was Secretary of the Geological Society 1866-74and President 1874-76. He was involved with the plan to unite theAnthropological Society and the Ethnological eth��nol��o��gy?n.1. The science that analyzes and compares human cultures, as in social structure, language, religion, and technology; cultural anthropology.2. Society (Burrow 1970:120-24) in the Anthropological Institute, of which Lubbock served as thefirst President. The plan for Evans to succeed him in 1872 wasfrustrated, however, when the membership elected a non-scientist,Charnock; and Huxley immediately resigned in protest. Evans did,however, become President 1877-79 (Evans 1943: 158). Yet another societywith which he was associated was the British Association for theAdvancement of Science The British Association or the British Association for the Advancement of Science or the BA is a learned society with the object of promoting science, directing general attention to scientific matters, and facilitating interaction between scientific workers. , whose meetings he had attended since 1861,presiding over the anthropological section in 1870 at Liverpool and thegeological section in 1878 at Dublin. It is in this context that the setof documents to be presented here takes its place. The Borneo Caves Expedition Among John Evans' personal papers is a sheet of paper settingout a financial calculation (FIGURE 1). Bearing the heading `BorneoCaves' and the year 1878, it lists a series of names against sumsof money ranging from 3 guineas (from Prestwich, now in academicemployment) to 30 [pounds sterling] for his personal contribution,together with two sums of 50 [pounds sterling] from the Royal Societyand the British Association for the Advancement of Science respectively.Its significance is made clear from an accompanying printed handbillfrom the assistant secretary of the British Association, dated 19September 1878, noting the text of a resolution taken at the Dublinmeeting: [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] That Mr John Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Major-General Lane Fox[Pitt-Rivers], Mr George Busk busk?intr.v. busked, busk��ing, busksTo play music or perform entertainment in a public place, usually while soliciting money. , Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr Pengelly, andMr A.W. Franks be a Committee for the purpose of exploring Caves inBorneo; that Mr Evans be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50 [poundssterling] be placed at their disposal for the purpose. Once again, Evans' organizational skills were in demand; andhe set about writing to those of his acquaintance known both for theirfinancial soundness and their generosity. Only one such exchange ofletters is preserved, but it is an illuminating record both ofscientific interest and financial liberality lib��er��al��i��ty?n. pl. lib��er��al��i��ties1. The quality or state of being liberal or generous.2. An instance of being liberal. (Cambridge UniversityLibrary The Cambridge University Library is the centrally-administered library of the University of Cambridge in England. It comprises five separate libraries: the University Library main building the Medical Library , DAR 163: 37): Hemel Hempstead January 28 1878 Dear Mr Darwin, I venture to ask your kind assistance in carrying out some caveexplorations in Borneo which Mr Everett, with whose name I think you areacquainted, is willing to undertake. He proposes to devote a year to theexploration and estimates his expenses at about 370 [pounds sterling]which I have agreed to find for him -- the produce of his work in thefirst instance to go to the British Museum and any duplicates that theymay not require will be allotted by a committee. The Royal Society hasvoted me 50 [pounds sterling] from the Donation Fund, and I hope to geta similar amount from the British Association, but there is still alarge sum to raise by private subscription which I hope to arrange. Ithink that Huxley has already mentioned the subject to you, and I hopethat you will not think me troublesome in making application to you --it seemed to me too good an opportunity to be lost, but I cannot bearthe whole expense myself, though I do not like to go a-begging a figurative phrase to express the absence of demand for something which elsewhere brings a price; as, grapes are so plentiful there that they go a-begging s>.not to be in demand; to be undesired.See also: Beg Go . Isuppose that you have seen Gaudry's new book (2) with which I amsure that you will be pleased. Believe me yours most truly, John Evans Charles Darwin Esq LLD LLDabbr.Latin Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws)LLDDoctor of Laws [Latin Legum Doctor]Noun 1. FRS The reply (FIGURE 2), which came by return of post (a tribute bothto Darwin's promptitude and the efficiency of the Victorian PostOffice), was filed with Evans' papers (Ash. Mus. Dept. Ant/A.L.Evans Gift/1878): [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Down Beckenham, Kent Jan 29. 78 My dear Mr Evans, I think you are doing a very great service to Natural Science bygetting the caves of Borneo explored. I shall be happy to subscribe 20[pounds sterling], but I do not send a cheque as if more is necessary Ishall be glad to give 30 [pounds sterling] or 40 [pounds sterling]. Iwish someone as energetic as yourself would organise an expedition tothe triassic lacustrine la��cus��trine?adj.1. Of or relating to lakes.2. Living or growing in or along the edges of lakes.[French or Italian lacustre (from Latin lacus, lake) + beds in S. Africa, where the cliffs are said tobe almost composed of bones. Pray believe me yours very sincerely, Ch. Darwin. Evans had been aware of the potential of cave sites as sources bothof Pleistocene faunas and evidence of early human occupation, not onlyfrom Pengelly's work in Devon but from his own visit to theDordogne in company with Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy in 1864. Theopportunity to extend such observations to other parts of the world, andespecially to the famously large and extensive cave systems of Borneo,must have struck him as particularly opportune; but Darwin was alreadyprimed as to the importance of this island. Alfred Russel Wallace,naturalist and co-discoverer of the principle of natural selection, hadvisited Borneo in 1855 to observe the orangutans which are limited tothis island and adjacent Sumatra; and it was here that he composed hisfirst paper (`The law which has regulated the introduction ofspecies', prefiguring the famous memoir which provoked Darwin intowriting the Origin). Moreover Wallace had written directly to Huxley onthe possible significance of the west Borneo caves as sources ofevidence for the evolution of the anthropoid anthropoid/an��thro��poid/ (an��thro-poid) resembling a human being; the anthropoid apes are tailless apes, including the chimpanzee, gibbon, gorilla, and orangutan. an��thro��poidadj.1. apes (Harrisson 1958: 550).Huxley, in turn, alluded to them in his discussion of Neanderthalremains in 1863 and even recommended an expedition there in NaturalHistory Review in 1864, while Wallace mentioned in correspondence withDarwin in May of the same year that the British Consul in Kuching wouldconduct an initial exploration of the caves which might be followed byan expedition funded by subscription. (3) It was not until the appearance of A. Hart Everett, however, anacquaintance of Wallace, that a suitable person was found to undertakesuch a programme (Harrisson 1958). Everett was an amateur naturalist andcollector, supplying ornithological or��ni��thol��o��gy?n.The branch of zoology that deals with the study of birds.orni��tho��log material to Lord Tweeddale,President of the Zoological Society, arriving in Borneo to collect birdsin 1869, as well as working part-time in government service for theWhite Rajahs. He visited the Bau cave and the great cave at Niah in1873, and his account of this huge complex (used in recent times forburial, and where the myriad swallows-nests were traditionally collectedfor soup) in the Sarawak Gazette would have aided his quest forsponsorship. John Evans, knowing of the rich Palaeolithic harvest in thecaves of the Dordogne, provided his link to the London societies andinterested individuals who could provide the backing he needed. Unfortunately, when provided with funds, Everett barely scratchedthe surface: indeed, Harrisson (1958: 554-9) doubts whether he undertookmuch serious new research. There was some political unrest, and nativepopulations were reluctant to enable access to their burial-places --and apart from these recent burials, a much larger scale of excavationwould have been necessary to fulfil the promise of `finding in thedeposits on their floor fossil remains of the forerunner of anthropoidapes' (as Everett represented his mission to a visiting Americannaturalist, William Hornaday). Hornaday visited him while working at theBan cave, and described the scene: `Here was an evolutionist ev��o��lu��tion��ism?n.1. A theory of biological evolution, especially that formulated by Charles Darwin.2. Advocacy of or belief in biological evolution. , with hiswar-paint all on, and his weapons in his hand -- pick, shovel and sieve.Imagine the sensation of a Darwinian actually searching for and findingthe link between man and the great apes!' (Hornaday 1885, cited inHarrisson 1958). The reality, however, was that the anticipated`bone-beds' proved elusive, and Everett (despite claims of a fossilorangutan skull and a mastodon tooth, of which no traces can be found:von Koenigswald 1958) was only able to send back sub-fossil specimensfrom Bau cave and the Paku Flats auriferous au��rif��er��ous?adj.Containing gold; gold-bearing.[From Latin aurifer, gold-bearing : aurum, gold + -fer, -fer. sands, or recent material --probably Dayak hunting trophies (Harrisson 1959). Reports of the work of the expedition (Everett 1879; Everett et al.1880), were in effect a confession of failure: only recent material wasto be found in the caves, which it was concluded were `too recentlyraised above the waters of the sea to render it probable that futurediscoveries will be made' and that `no further expense should behazarded' in pursuit of fossil material. In consequence, it wasanother 80 years before Harrisson's own work demonstrated the theastonishing potential of the Niah complex, with its sequence stretchingback 40,000 years, and it was to be a further 30 before the recentcampaign of work there began (Barker 2001; Cranbrook 2001). Theenthusiasm for cave-exploration in other parts of island south-east Asiawas not diminished, however, since even as the depressing report waspublished, the Dutch army doctor Eugene Dubois was beginning hisexploration of the limestone caves in the Padang Highlands of centralSumatra between 1880 and 1890. Yet it was not in these caves that theWallace/Darwin agenda for finding fossil man in this area was to beachieved, but in freshwater sandstone and conglomerate deposits alongthe Solo River in Java, which Dubois began to explore at the behest ofthe Dutch government in 1889 -- and was rewarded in 1891 by thediscovery of the famous calotte ca��lotte?n. EcclesiasticalA skullcap, especially one worn by Roman Catholic priests.[French, from Proven?al calota or Italian callotta.] and femur femur(fē`mər): see leg. of `Pithecanthropus'(Homo erectus) from Trinil, the first pre-Neanderthal human fossil toreceive scientific recognition (Dubois 1894). In the context of fossil-hunting in Britain, however, there is onemore twist to the tale of the Borneo Caves. Everett sent his material tothe British Museum (Natural History) in South Kensington, and more wasadded by his executors, being catalogued in the Department of Geologycollections by Arthur Smith Woodward Sir Arthur Smith Woodward (May 23, 1864 – September 2, 1944) was an English paleontologist.Woodward was born in Macclesfield, Cheshire, England and was educated there and at Owens College, Manchester. in 1899. J.S. Weiner was able toshow in 1951 that the lower jaw of the Piltdown find (made in 1912) wasin fact that of a recent orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus Pongo pygmaeussee orang-utan. ) -- a speciessurviving only in Borneo and Sumatra; and the specimen was thenradiocarbon dated in Groningen to 500 [+ or -] 100 BP (Oakley & deVries de Vries.For some persons thus named use Vries.1959). Although recent reviews of the Piltdown Fraud havesuggested that its perpetrator A term commonly used by law enforcement officers to designate a person who actually commits a crime. , Charles Dawson, acted alone (e.g.Langdon 1991), a recent investigation by G.M. Drawhorn (1994) points tothe fact that Woodward had access to the entire range of faunal andanatomical material used in the hoax, and concludes that these materialswere knowingly supplied to Dawson by Woodward. Indeed, the Piltdownassemblage directly reflected Woodward's evolutionary beliefs (areconstruction of human ancestry and morphological development based onorthogenetic principles) and his conception of an `Upper Pliocene'fauna based on the material from Trinil. While the matter is incapableof proof, it seems possible that the orangutan jaw which served as the`Pildown mandible' had been collected by Everett in 1878. If so,one of the more curious outcomes of Evans' organizing skills andDarwin's generosity in supporting Everett's work in Borneo wasironically to make a contribution to human palaeontology's greatestfake. History -- especially the history of archaeology The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. OriginsThe exact origins of archaeology as a discipline are uncertain. -- has strangebyways. Darwin and Evans: a compliment Evans' reputation amongst archaeologists has remained high,principally for his major syntheses Ancient Stone Implements and AncientBronze Implements. To this archaeological contribution can be added histireless sense of public service in connection with the learnedsocieties of his day. His role in the recognition of `the antiquity ofman' is equally celebrated -- now as in 1879, when the Frenchauthor Francisque Sarcey, writing on the Comedie franqaise in thejournal Nineteenth Century, ended the article with a compliment to hishosts: `the people ... which has revolutionised the world of thought andscience with the writings of such men as Darwin, Herbert Spencer, SirJohn Lubbock and Evans has nothing to envy in anybody' (Evans 1943:160). At that moment, at any rate, Darwin and Evans were linked inpublic recognition -- as the two names in the list for which a surnamealone was sufficient. Darwin's fame, both in the history of scienceand in popular imagination, has deservedly been the more enduring; buthis kindly and generous response to Evans' request for fundsprovides further evidence that his greatness as a scientific thinker wasmatched by a quiet desire to promote the practical progress of hissubject. It is a small piece of history, but one worth celebrating. Acknowledgements. I must thank the Keeper of Antiquities in theAshmolean Museum (Dr P.R.S. Moorey) for permission to reproducedocuments given to the Department by Arthur L. Evans; and also Dr SusanSherratt, sometime Arthur Evans Archivist ARCHIVIST. One to whose care the archives have been confided. in the Department, for sharingher extensive knowledge of the Evans dynasty and its historical context.The letter from Evans to Darwin (DAR.163:37) is published withpermission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library. Dr AlisonPearn of the Darwin Correspondence Project in the University Library,Cambridge was most helpful in this connection. Dr Beatrice Clayre andThe Earl of Cranbrook helped me with information on Borneo. NathanSchlanger provided both encouragement and advice. (1) For example, Evans found some unusual conical objects in aBronze Age barrow, and wrote to Darwin for his advice before realizingthat these objects were not organic at all. (Evans to Darwin, 14December 1868, Cambridge University Library DAR 163.36). (2) The reference is to Albert Gaudry, Les enchainements du monde n. 1. The world; a globe as an ensign of royalty.Le beau mondefashionable society. See Beau monde.Demi mondeSee Demimonde. animal dans les temps geologiques, 1878. This is perhaps surprising,since Gaudry's transformism -- in the tradition of the Great Chainof Being -- was very different from Darwin's own perception of theevolutionary process. For Evans, the grand narrative of palaeontologywas evidently more important than the mechanism proposed by Darwin. (3) May 10, 1864 My dear Darwin -- The Borneo Cave exploration is to go on atpresent without a subscription. The new British Consul who is going outto Sarawak this month will undertake to explore some of the cavesnearest the town [Kuching] and if anything of interest is obtained agood large sum can no doubt be raised for a thorough exploration of thewhole country ... A.R. Wallace. (Burkhardt & Smith 1985 -- (vol. 12): 73) References BARKER, G. et al. 2001. The Niah Caves Project: preliminary reporton the first (2000) season, Sarawak Museum Journal 55(76 NS): 111-49. BURKHARDT, F. & S. SMITH (ed.). 1985--. The correspondence ofCharles Darwin The British naturalist Charles Darwin had correspondence with numerous other scientific luminaries of his age and members of his family. 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Man among the mammoths: Victorian science andthe discovery of human prehistory. Chicago (IL): Chicago UniversityPress. ANDREW SHERRATT, Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford, Oxford OX12PH, England. andrew.sherratt@ashmus.oxford.ac.uk