Creating an effective strategic plan for the school district.

Creating an effective strategic plan for the school district. The purpose of this study was to examine the process of developinga strategic plan for school districts through communication andinvolvement of all stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. . This process takes into considerationthe diverse concerns and principles; supports scholarly and coherentdecision making; and employs the development of a strategic plan throughboth qualitative and quantitative methodologies. As a final point,strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. should be able to show where we are; where we want togo; how we will get there; the time line involved; and the costassociated with the project.The strategic planning technique is easily adapted to variousorganizations including school districts. In the past decision andplanning process was incorporated by a select group of leaders at thetop of the hierarchy of the organization. However, many diverse groupswithin the organization should have the ability to have input in theplan the process of analyzing various situations and deciding in whichdirection the organization would move. The consequences of this planningadvanced a document now attributed as a strategic plan. Once the planhas been developed and approved it is then implemented over a specificperiod of time.According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Bryson (1995), strategic planning is:"a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions andactions that shape and guide what an organization is, what it does andwhy it does it. To deliver the best results, strategic planning requiresbroad yet effective information gathering, development and explorationof strategic alternative, and an emphasis on future implications ofpresent decisions.The planning process can help smooth the progress of communicationand involvement, contain varied concerns and principles, promoteintelligent and logical resolution making, and encourage implementation.As a final point, strategic planning can consequently deal withindividuals' life mysteries (Bryson, 1995). Strategic planning hasits roots in the military with early organizations mirroring this chainof command approach. The decisions and planning thus was employed by aselected few leaders at the top of the organization. This planningprocess involved analyzing various situations and deciding in whichdirection the organization would move. The results of this planningevolved a document referred to now as a strategic plan. Onceestablished, the plan could then be implemented (Wall & Wall, 1995).In the early 1950s the business world captivated cap��ti��vate?tr.v. cap��ti��vat��ed, cap��ti��vat��ing, cap��ti��vates1. To attract and hold by charm, beauty, or excellence. See Synonyms at charm.2. Archaic To capture. with the ideas offormulating strategic plans, the process became widespread. This was dueto private and public agencies believing that the strategic planningprocess was the answer to all their despair. However, after the boom ofthat era, businesses discarded dis��card?v. dis��card��ed, dis��card��ing, dis��cardsv.tr.1. To throw away; reject.2. a. To throw out (a playing card) from one's hand.b. the fad until the 1990s, when itresurfaced as a planning process that had particular benefits(Mintzberg, 1994).Problem StatementIn the past ten years, southeastern school districts have facedcontinuous organizational changes in its schools, along with state andfederal mandates, challenges of diversity, and an influx of ESL (1) An earlier family of client/server development tools for Windows and OS/2 from Ardent Software (formerly VMARK). It was originally developed by Easel Corporation, which was acquired by VMARK. students. School districts are therefore faced with developinginnovative strategies to address these changes while it continues tomeet the every day School districts and states have engaged informulating strategic plans in order to implement change and in order tobecome acclimated to the ever changing environment (Rowley, Lujan, &Dolence, 1997).Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of strategic planning process is to enable schooldistricts, other organizations, and leaders to concentrate its abilitiesin establishing area, goals, objectives and activities over apredetermined pre��de��ter��mine?v. pre��de��ter��mined, pre��de��ter��min��ing, pre��de��ter��minesv.tr.1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: timeline For Wikipedia's timeline and related tools, see Wikipedia:Timeline.Timeline may refer to: Chronology — see also list of timelines . The process allows the leaders of theorganization to act in response to a changing state of affairs and toalso generate decisions and actions that will lead and shape theorganizations future.Benefits of Strategic PlanningManagers and administrators may ask, is strategic planning theanswer to many of their organizational challenges? If so, what are thebenefits of inaugurating a strategic plan for the school district?Developing a strategic plan for a school district that covers a periodof five years may benefit stakeholders in a variety of ways. A strategicplan establishes a vision, mission and beliefs for the school district;the plan establishes the path to accomplish its desired future; the planprovides a path which allows the community to work together toaccomplish the goals, objectives, and activities that constitute thestrategic plan; it allows for an understanding of how a school districtworks, how finances are spent, and identifies the needs of the schooldistrict; and allows the school district to set specific data-drivenpriorities.MethodologyMost school superintendents Noun 1. school superintendent - the superintendent of a school systemoverseer, superintendent - a person who directs and manages an organization and school board members prefer theidea of a planned direction for decision-making decision-making,n the process of coming to a conclusion or making a judgment.decision-making, evidence-based,n a type of informal decision-making that combines clinical expertise, patient concerns, and evidence gathered from . There is, however, adegree of confusion regarding how to establish this process and what isrequired to formulate formulate/for��mu��late/ (for��mu-lat)1. to state in the form of a formula.2. to prepare in accordance with a prescribed or specified method. and implement school district wide priorities."Planning is a formalized for��mal��ize?tr.v. for��mal��ized, for��mal��iz��ing, for��mal��iz��es1. To give a definite form or shape to.2. a. To make formal.b. procedure to produce an articulated ar��tic��u��la��tedadj.Characterized by or having articulations; jointed. result, in the form of an integrated system of decisions." Thinkingabout and attempting to control the future are important components ofplanning (Mintzberg, 1994 p. 12). "Planning is required when thefuture state desired involves a set of interdependent in��ter��de��pen��dent?adj.Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests"decisions; that isa system of decisions" (Ackoff, 1970 in Mintzberg, 1994, p. 11).William Cook William Cook can refer to: William Cook (entrepreneur), the founder of the Cook Group, a medical equipment manufacturer. William Cook (computer scientist), developer of object-oriented semantics, creator of AppleScript, founder of Allegis, professor at UT Austin. , Jr. (1988) wrote, "Strategic planning is aimed attotal concentration of the organizations' resources on mutuallypredetermined measurable outcomes." According to these definitionsa strategic plan would consist of all a school districts assets andobjectives. Thus, a strategic plan must be developed consciously andconsiderately con��sid��er��ate?adj.1. Having or marked by regard for the needs or feelings of others. See Synonyms at thoughtful.2. Characterized by careful thought; deliberate. . The process requires a qualitative methodology. Accordingto C. George Boeree C. George Boeree (born January 15, 1952 in the Netherlands) is a professor of psychology at Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania. He came to the United States as a boy, and grew up in the New York City area. He and Judith Kovarik married in 1974 and have three daughters. (1998), qualitative methodology captures life as itis lived. L.R. Gay (1996) defines qualitative research Qualitative researchTraditional analysis of firm-specific prospects for future earnings. It may be based on data collected by the analysts, there is no formal quantitative framework used to generate projections. as the collectionof extensive narrative information on many variables over a period oftime, which occurs in naturalistic nat��u��ral��is��tic?adj.1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature.2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. surroundings. This allows theresearcher to acquire insights not otherwise available through othermethodologies.Qualitative research allows for a more complete understanding ofbehavior requiring an understanding of the circumstances CIRCUMSTANCES, evidence. The particulars which accompany a fact. 2. The facts proved are either possible or impossible, ordinary and probable, or extraordinary and improbable, recent or ancient; they may have happened near us, or afar off; they are public or in which ittakes place. The qualitative approach is more concerned with both theway and the how things become what they are in a naturalistic setting.Qualitative researchers further consider how people feel about things asthey exist, what people believe, as well as what meanings areemotionally involved with the assorted activities.During the strategic planning process researchers employmulti-method approaches in order to realize the purpose of gatheringcomprehensive and in-depth knowledge of subject matter. Thesemulti-method approaches include but are not limited to participantobservation participant observation,n a method of qualitative research in which the researcher understands the contex-tual meanings of an event or events through participating and observing as a subject in the research. , document collection, and informal interviewing.Comprehensive note taking is also employed during the observation andinterview process. The result of this technique provides an in-depthassessment of the school district as a unit. Consequently an enormoustask of codifying the gathered information results in a comprehensiveinformation base that serves as the tool for establishing futuredirections.Strategic planning terminology must be clearly defined byeducational leaders prior to the beginning of the planning process.Every scholastic group must be made aware of the steps as well as thelanguage asserted with this type of planning. The outline that followspresents a model as well as an interpretation of the terminologyassociated with strategic planning. Each step is defined and explainedin order that practitioners may use it in whole or in part.A Conceptual Model for Strategic PlanningThe conceptual model presented herein begins with a presentation tothe superintendent and board members of the school district.Step 1: Planning to Plan:Figure 1. Readiness of a group to plan.This is the critical first step. The departmenthead and others must assessthe readiness of a group to plan. Theprocess used should match the resources,purposes and political environment of theentity doing the planning.Identify:1) Fiscal, human and material resourcesnecessary for planning2) Form and timing of all reports3) Commitment levels required4) Required Steps5) Organizational arrangements required toStep II: Gain and Sustain Commitment:Figure 2 identifies the stakeholders and communication proceduresthat should be involved in the strategic planning process.Figure 2. Stakeholders and communication process1) Identify and involve stakeholders2) Conduct public meetings to ensuretotal participation3) Involve the media4) Make the process high profile5) Set reasonable expectations of workgroups6) Set realistic timelines7) Use opportunities to celebrate milestones8) Identify and quickly accomplish tasksthat result in interim success9) Communicate10) Provide public input by using11) Hotlines12) Speakers13) Consultants14) Public forums15) Identify and publicize the work of allconcerned.Step III: The process begins with an explanation of what planninginvolves: The process of an agency, organization, entity, or institution determining its current status, examining its priorities, deciding where it wants to go, and identifying the necessary resources required to attain its decided upon direction. (e.g. the process of deciding where you are, where you want to go and how you are going to get there!).Step IV: An explanation of what strategic planning is and what itencompasses:1) A process that involves planning that is considered long-range.2) Usually the plan is for at least 5 years.3) The process is comprehensive (All inclusive)Step V: The researcher presents what strategic planning implies:1) It implies both broad and specific factors will be considered!2) It means that not only do you consider the very general factorssuch as goals, you also look at tactical factors such as specific waysto get things done.Step VI: An explanation should be provided regarding how astrategic plan will benefit the school district:1) Customer Satisfaction2) Cost-benefit3) Stakeholder stakeholdern. a person having in his/her possession (holding) money or property in which he/she has no interest, right or title, awaiting the outcome of a dispute between two or more claimants to the money or property. input4) Continuity of purpose5) Accountability6) Communication Effectiveness7) A Structured Monitoring SystemStep VII: A statement of the questions that strategic planninganswers:1) Where are we now?2) Where do we want to be in the future?3) How will we get there?4) How do we measure our progress?Step VIII: An explanation of the meaning of strategic planningterms are explained by using examples under the titles of Mega, Macro,Micro, Vision, Mission, and Goals:Figure 3. Commonly used strategic planning terms and examples. Mega Macro Micro Vision Mission Goals The State Managers Ideal Influenced Provide Universe By Many Specific Factors DirectionThe World Community Teachers Desired Generally Mission Outcomes Guides Related workThe Nation School Students The Dream Based on Human District For Your purpose Resources DistrictAll School SDE School Attainable Global RequiredDistricts cafeterias Objectives Economy Regulatory Cafeteria Resource Vertically Required Agencies Workers Driven Influential TacticsStep IX: Internal and external scanning, the assessment process, isexplained below. This process is extremely important! Every detail of anoperation that affects how well an organization operates a departmentshould be examined; because the results may affect the entire plan.Figure 4 below presents the contacts between external and internalscanning.Figure 4. Internal and external scanning.Internal Scanning (Assessment)Examines the current state of affairs within theagency or department. Looks at personnel,costs, operations, profits and processes andprovides a written assessment!!External Scanning (Assessment)Examines the current state of affairs regardingthings outside of the organization (e.g. Laws,Governmental mandates, funding, Communityattitudes, demographic characteristics, etc.)The results of internal and external scanning provide excellentdata and subsequent information that helps the organization to:1) Clarify future direction2) Identify priorities3) Develop strategies4) Deal with change5) Improve expertise6) Enhance Teamwork (product, software, tool) Teamwork - A SASD tool from Sterling Software, formerly CADRE Technologies, which supports the Shlaer/Mellor Object-Oriented method and the Yourdon-DeMarco, Hatley-Pirbhai, Constantine and Buhr notations. 7) Build partnerships8) Enhance relationshipsStep X: Establish strategic direction:Every organization must examine its vision and mission. Prior tocompleting any plan's process a reexamination re��ex��am��inealso re-ex��am��ine ?tr.v. re��ex��am��ined, re��ex��am��in��ing, re��ex��am��ines1. To examine again or anew; review.2. Law To question (a witness) again after cross-examination. of these componentsmust take place. Figure 5 below outlines the strategic direction of theplanning process involving the vision and mission statements. The visionand mission statements are vital to the strategic planning process byidentifying the view of the stakeholders as a whole and the missionestablishes who we are, where we want to go and how we will arrive atour final destination.Figure 5. Strategic directions through the vision and missionstatements.1) Strategic direction is established throughvision and mission statements.2) Vision statements emerge from brainstorming,examining a view of the realistic,credible and attractive future.3) The vision is the ideal of what the organizationor department will become.4) The mission establishes who we are, whowe serve, for what purposes do we exist,what issues were we established to address,what are we trying to achieve, andwhat makes us distinctive and unique.Step XI: SWOTs (Andrews, 1971) are:1) Strengths- refer to those aspects of an organization that areestablished and implemented to the extent of shareholders expectationsand standards2) Weaknesses-refer to elements within the study that do not meetcurrent standards or stakeholder expectations.3) Opportunities- refer to those activities that current resourceswould and could support that have not yet been thought of oraccomplished4) Threats-refer to elements of an organization that are notproperly structured, identified, or categorized cat��e��go��rize?tr.v. cat��e��go��rized, cat��e��go��riz��ing, cat��e��go��riz��esTo put into a category or categories; classify.cat which cause terminationof operations (Bryson, 1995).Step XII: Developing planning areas:1) These are the broad, general areas toward which effort isdirected.2) Examples of such areas for districts include, fiscal efficiency,acquisition of food, distribution, personnel, facilities, etc.Step XIII: The term "Goals" is explained to the audience:1) Goals are broadly stated purposes toward which ends aredirected!2) Goals are issues oriented o��ri��ent?n.1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia.2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality.b. A pearl having exceptional luster.3. !3) Goals are specifically related to issues uncovered Uncovered may refer to: something "not covered" Uncovered (Sirsy) byscanning(Assessment)!4) Goals focus actions toward clearly defined purposes!5) Goals should be in harmony with your vision, mission, and valuestatement.6) Goals should reflect your strategic issues and priorities.7) Each goal should focus on a single issue.8) Goals should provide a clear direction for action.9) Goals should be long-range or unrestricted by time.10) The total number of goals should be kept to a minimum.XIV: Objectives are SMART (Drucker, 1954):1) Specific2) Measurable3) Aggressive and Attainable at��tain?v. at��tained, at��tain��ing, at��tainsv.tr.1. To gain as an objective; achieve: attain a diploma by hard work.2. 4) Results Oriented5) Time-Bound6) Quantifiable QuantifiableCan be expressed as a number. The results of quantifiable psychological tests can be translated into numerical values, or scores.Mentioned in: Psychological Tests interim steps toward achieving a long-range visionand goals.7) Linked directly to goals.8) Measurable, time-based statements of intent.9) Emphasized results at the end of a specific time period.Criteria for well-written objectives: "S.M.A.R.T""S"--objectives identify Specific accomplishments thatare desired, not the ways (strategies) to accomplish them. Allobjectives should be able to generate specific activities. An objectiveshould be detailed enough to be understandable and give clear directionsto others."M"--An objective must be Measurable. It is at this levelthat a clear linkage linkageIn mechanical engineering, a system of solid, usually metallic, links (bars) connected to two or more other links by pin joints (hinges), sliding joints, or ball-and-socket joints to form a closed chain or a series of closed chains. is made to performance measurement. To the extentthat every goal has measurable objectives, the attainment of the goalitself can be measured."A"--Aggressive and Attainable--If objectives are to bestandards for achievement, they must be challenging but realistic andwithin the ability of the organization to achieve!! They should notdemand the impossible. This is in contrast to the vision, or even thegoals, which may be beyond one organizations or department'scapacity to achieve alone. Objectives require aligned, cooperativeefforts among multiple departments or even organizations."R"--Objectives should specify Results or outcomes, notways to accomplish them."T"--Time-bound because each objective should have aspecific timeframe to be attained at��tain?v. at��tained, at��tain��ing, at��tainsv.tr.1. To gain as an objective; achieve: attain a diploma by hard work.2. or accomplished (Freeman Freeman can mean: An individual not tied to land under the Medieval feudal system, unlike a villein or serf A person who has been awarded Freedom of the City or "Freedom of the Company" in a Livery Company The Freeman andZackrison, 2001).Step XV: Activities:1) A process involving the accomplishment of a thing usually over aperiod of time, in stages, or with the possibility of repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled .2) The most vigorous, productive, or exciting activity in aparticular field or area.3) Activities include the actual work associated with an objective.4) This involves who, where, what, when, how many, how much, andhow often until the objective is completed.Step XVI: Developing timelines This article or section contains self-references.For other uses of "Timeline", see Timeline (disambiguation).The following is an index of timelines found on Wikipedia. :1) Five year period2) Gantt Charts3) Schedules4) PERT PERTAn acronym for program evaluation and review technique; a planning, scheduling, and control procedure based upon the use of time-oriented networks which reflect the interrelationships and dependencies among the project tasks (activities). 5) All of the above are scheduling tools that can guide theimplementation of the plan.Step XVII: Fiscal Considerations:1) Determine the activity2) Who will be in charge of the activity?a. Will others also be involvedi. List the person in charge followed by others involved inaccomplishing the activity3) Determine the timeline (one to five years)4) Will the activity begin and end in one year?5) Will the activity take place over the course of the entire plan?6) How much will this activity cost to implement over the timeframe established?Internal and external scanning yield SWOTs:The determination of SWOTs focuses on issues such as theorganization's structure, culture, employees, fiscal, human andmaterial resources, and inside or outside factors affecting theseelements.Step XVIII: Internal scanning encompasses the following data:1) Interviews2) Surveys3) Archival Data4) Budget Information5) Reports6) Evaluations (Personnel and Program)7) Audit Report recommendations8) Other Internal PlansStep XIX: External scanning encompasses the following data:1) Federal and State Reports and Data bases2) Legislation, Regulations, Executive Orders, Court Orders, CourtDecisions, etc.3) Standards of Professional Associations4) Community Input5) Media6) Advisory and Other Boards7) Research Center InformationStrategic planning requires specific sequence of actions: Strategic planning requires a specific sequence of activities. It is important for the planning process to use some variation of the steps prescribed by the process. Step one involves planning for the strategic planning process.Implementing the Strategic PlanOnce the data has been gathered via internal and external scanning,put into order, and narratives written; then the document in its firstdraft should be taken to the committees and fully discussed. Revisions,if requested, should be made at this time. Once the draft has beenrevised and corrected it is once again presented to the committees as awhole. If the committees agree that the document meets with theirapproval, it is publicized pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.Adj. 1. publicized - made known; especially made widely knownpublicised and then presented to the public to bethoroughly discussed. During this phase of the presentation, acclimation acclimation/ac��cli��ma��tion/ (ak?li-ma��shun) the process of becoming accustomed to a new environment. ac��cli��ma��tionn.1. may be requested of all present. Once the document has been acclaimed ac��claim?v. ac��claimed, ac��claim��ing, ac��claimsv.tr.1. To praise enthusiastically and often publicly; applaud. See Synonyms at praise.2. bythe public, the superintendent should then present the strategic plan tothe entire Board of Education with his recommendation to accept orreject the final draft. When the Board approves the final document, itmay be printed and distributed. The document may then be place instrategic areas of the school district accessible by all who may wish toread it. Pamphlets should be made available listing the vision, mission,beliefs, areas, goals, and objectives. Pamphlets provide the opportunityto share the district's educational vision and other informationwith the entire community.Strategic plans are usually written for five year periods: however,plans can be developed to encompass portions of the next five years.Timelines and objectives can be tailored to fit the district'sneeds, or even eliminated, with approval of leadership at the centraloffice. The document hopefully will not just sit on a shelf gatheringdust; therefore, it is imperative that a reporting basis be establishedon a monthly or quarterly basis throughout the entire timeline to assurethat this is not the case, those assigned as��sign?tr.v. as��signed, as��sign��ing, as��signs1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.2. the responsibility forcarrying out the activities should report the progress made on a regularbasis.An annual review of the document should take place in each of thefive years. Review should include what is actually transpiring tran��spire?v. tran��spired, tran��spir��ing, tran��spiresv.tr.To give off (vapor containing waste products) through the pores of the skin or the stomata of plant tissue.v.intr.1. withinthe district and fine tuning Fine Tuning is the name of XM Satellite Radio's eclectic music channel. The program director for Fine Tuning is Ben Smith.The channel is described as "A musical oasis for the sophisticated listener culled from every imaginable genre and country. to the plan implemented. A strategic plan,it must be remembered, is not merely a plan of the school district, buta plan of the whole community in which the district is located. It is aplan of the people and for the people.ReferencesAndrews. K. R. (1971). The concept of corporate strategy. Homewood,IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.Bryson, J. M. (1995). Strategic planning for public and nonprofitorganizations Nonprofit OrganizationAn association that is given tax-free status. Donations to a non-profit organization are often tax deductible as well.Notes:Examples of non-profit organizations are charities, hospitals and schools. : A guide to strengthening and sustaining Organizationalachievement. (Rev. ed rev.abbr.1. revenue2. reverse3. reversed4. review5. revision6. revolutionrev.1. revise(d)2. .). San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Jossey-Bass Publishers.Cook, W. J., Jr. Bill Cook's strategic planning forAmerica's schools. Arlington. Virginia: American Association ofSchool Administrators The American Association of School Administrators (AASA), founded in 1865, is the professional organization for more than 13,000 educational leaders across the United States. , 1988. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED303870). Retrieved May 6, 2004, from http://www.colonialcambridge.com/progplan.html.Drucker, P. (1954). The practice of management. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Harpercollins Publishers.Gay, L.R. (1996). Educational research: Competencies for analysisand applications (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Leaner, A.L. (1999). Strategic planning essays. Unpublishedmanuscript manuscript,a handwritten work as distinguished from printing. The oldest manuscripts, those found in Egyptian tombs, were written on papyrus; the earliest dates from c.3500 B.C. . California State University, Northridge CSUN offers a variety of programs leading to bachelor's degrees in 61 fields and master's degrees in 42 fields. The university has over 150,000 alumni. It's also home to a summer musical theater/theater program known as TADW (TeenAge Drama Workshop) that leads teenagers through an . Retrieved May 6,2004 from http://www.des.calstate.edu/history.html.Hax, A. C. & Majluf, N. S. (1991). The strategy concept andprocess, A pragmatic approach. Upper Saddle River Saddle River may refer to: Saddle River, New Jersey, a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey Saddle River (New Jersey), a tributary of the Passaic River in New Jersey , NJ: Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Prentice Hall publishes print and digital content for the 6-12 and higher education market. HistoryIn 1913, law professor Dr. .Mintzberg, H. (1994). The rise and fall of strategic planning. NewYork, NY:The Free Press. Retrieved May 6, 2004, fromhttp://www.pdma.org/bookstore/books/risefall_review.html.Wall, S.J., Wall, S.R. (1995, Autumn). The evolution (not thedeath) of strategy. Organization Dynamics, 24-2, p.6.Randy J. Lane, Ph.D., Fayetteville State University HistoryIn 1867, seven black men - Matthew N. Leary, Andrew J. Chesnutt, Robert Simmons, George Grainger, Thomas Lomax, Nelson Carter, and David A. Bryant - paid $136 for two lots on Gillespie Street and converted themselves into a self-perpetuating Board of Trustees to . Harold L.Bishop, Ph.D., University of Alabama The University of Alabama (also known as Alabama, UA or colloquially as 'Bama) is a public coeducational university located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA. Founded in 1831, UA is the flagship campus of the University of Alabama System. . Linda Wilson-Jones, Ph.D.,Fayetteville State University.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Randy J. Lane, Fayetteville State University, 255 Butler Bldg., 1200Munchison Road, Fayetteville, NC 28301; Email: rlane@uncfsu.edu