Cosmology, calendars and society in Neolithic Orkney: a rejoinder to Euan MacKie.

Cosmology, calendars and society in Neolithic Orkney: a rejoinder to Euan MacKie. The authors examine critically MacKie's long-standingcontentions concerning Neolithic Britain -- theocratic the��o��crat?n.1. A ruler of a theocracy.2. A believer in theocracy.the control ofsociety, the relationships between monuments and sunrise or sunset onsignificant days of the year, the use of an `elaborate andaccurate' solar calendar and its survival into the Iron Age andinto modern times. Key-words: Neolithic, Britain, Archaeoastronomy ar��chae��o��as��tron��o��my?n.The study of the knowledge, interpretations, and practices of ancient cultures regarding celestial objects or phenomena.ar , Maes Howe, Orkney You can't measure time in days the way you can money indollars because every day is different. JORGE LU1S BORGES In a recent article in ANTIQUITY Euan MacKie (1997) has presentednew material to support a modified version of his long-standingcontention (MacKie 1977a; 1977b) that there existed in later NeolithicBritain and Ireland theocractic elites who possessed what seemsastonishingly a��ston��ish?tr.v. as��ton��ished, as��ton��ish��ing, as��ton��ish��esTo fill with sudden wonder or amazement. See Synonyms at surprise. precise and sophisticated astronomical and mathematicalknowledge. He uses new archaeoastronomical data obtained at Maes Howepassage tomb in Orkney, combined with archaeological evidence from thenearby Neolithic settlement of Barnhouse, to reaffirm a number ofearlier ideas (e.g. MacKie 1969; 1976; 1977a; 1977b; 1981; 1982; 1983;1986; 1994). In particular, he suggests that certain pre-Christiancalendrical festivals, some of which survive into modern times, couldderive from a 'Neolithic solar calendar' in widespread use inlater Neolithic Britain and Ireland in which the solar year was dividedinto 8 or even 16 parts of equal length measured to the nearest day,starting from one of the solstices. Further arguments in support ofthese ideas, extending the origin of the `calendar' back to theearlier Neolithic, are also presented in a subsequent article onNeolithic and later structures at Howe, Orkney (MacKie 1998). Some of these ideas are important because of their clear, andradical, implications for our understanding of aspects of prehistoriccognition and cosmology, social organization and the factors determiningpatterns of continuity and change. In considering the new evidence, itis helpful to separate three overlapping, although not necessarilymutually dependent, fundamental ideas. The first is that the theocraciesoccupied a powerful and influential place in a strongly hierarchicalsocial structure present throughout Britain, using `national' formsof monument and pottery (MacKie 1997: 339). The second is that preciserelationships existed between monuments, points of reference on thedistant horizon, and sunrise or sunset on significant days in thecalendar year. The third is that an `elaborate and accurate'ceremonial calendar was in widespread use from Orkney to southernEngland and even Brittany (cf. MacKie 1997: 340,358). MacKie refers back repeatedly to the 1977 proposition of his ideasin the book Science and society in prehistoric Britain Prehistoric Britain was a period in the human occupation of Great Britain that extended throughout prehistory, ending with the Roman invasion of Britain in AD 43. Preface (MacKie 1977a --hereafter S&S). He dismisses critical reviews and commentaries (e.g.Hawkes 1977; Piggott 1978; Daniel 1980; Ritchie 1982) as `not findingfavour' and accuses others of lacking the courage to deal head-onwith his views (MacKie 1994). The propensity of this topic to generatemore heat than light is undeniable, but in view of the continuedpropagation of these ideas the present authors felt it necessary toattempt to provide -- if not the detailed refutation ref��u��ta��tion? also re��fut��aln.1. The act of refuting.2. Something, such as an argument, that refutes someone or something.Noun 1. that MacKie (1983)has demanded -- at least the main threads of such a case, both from anarchaeological and an archaeoastronomical point of view, together withpointers to some of the many relevant publications which, in our view,support that refutation. Social hierarchy Social hierarchyA fundamental aspect of social organization that is established by fighting or display behavior and results in a ranking of the animals in a group. and theocracy theocracyGovernment by divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided. In many theocracies, government leaders are members of the clergy, and the state's legal system is based on religious law. Theocratic rule was typical of early civilizations. MacKie's basic belief is stated clearly on p. 22 of S&S: as in the Classic period Maya, a dominating class of priests andchiefs emerged of whom at least the former lived in special ceremonialcentres supported by food surpluses grown by the rural population. Itsmembers thus had plenty of time to engage in intellectual activities andto develop systematically a variety of skills -- astronomy, mathematics,an accurate calendar, writing, a legal system, elaborate religions andso on. By 1997 S&S is retrospectively described as arguing (MacKie1997: 339) that the Grooved Ware Grooved ware is the name given to a pottery style of the British Neolithic. Its manufacturers are sometimes known as the Grooved ware people.Early in the 3rd millennium BC, Grooved ware began to appear all over the British Isles. sites in Orkney were a sign of the penetrationinto the far north of a society dominated by a religious elite withadvanced skills ... [which] had already been responsible for the lateNeolithic earthworks and stone circles on Salisbury Plain Salisbury Plain,undulating, mostly barren chalk plateau, c.300 sq mi (780 sq km), Wiltshire, S England. It is noted chiefly as the site of ancient monuments, of which Stonehenge is the most famous. The region is also an army training ground. . MacKie (1997: 339) sees the discovery of the Barnhouse settlement The recently found Neolithic Barnhouse Settlement is sited by the shore of Loch of Harray, Orkney Mainland, Scotland, not far from the Standing Stones of Stenness. The base courses have been found of at least 15 houses which have similarities to Skara Brae in that the houses have `as a vivid confirmation of his earlier reinterpretation re��in��ter��pret?tr.v. re��in��ter��pret��ed, re��in��ter��pret��ing, re��in��ter��pretsTo interpret again or anew.re of Skara Brae Skara Brae(skâr`ə brā), Stone Age village, on Mainland in the Orkney Islands, N Scotland. Dating from c.3200 to 2200 B.C., the village was preserved under a sand dune until uncovered by a storm in 1851. as a settlement of a religious elite'. Not only does he take no account of the fact that the largest,clearly non-domestic structure at Barnhouse was built late in the lifeof, or even after the abandonment of, the settlement (Richards 1996:200), but in presenting his case again he ignores a number of otherdevelopments: for example, that further settlements of the period havebeen discovered and excavated in Orkney (Barclay 1996 and references)and continue to appear (Discovery and Excavation in Scotland (DES)1995:10; 1998: 70), confirming that the architectural forms seen at SkaraBrae and Barnhouse are typical rather than exceptional; that the GroovedWare radiocarbon dates for northern Britain are now comparable with oreven earlier than those for the south (MacSween 1992: 269; Ashmore1998); that the henges of northern Britain may be built before those ofWessex (Parker Pearson 1993: 72); and that such a strongly diffusionistmodel for a homogenous homogenous - homogeneous `British' Neolithic (early or late) is nolonger sustainable. Significant studies have been published in the lastdecade that undermine the assertion (MacKie 1997: 339) that otherarchaeologists continue to interpret `Skara Brae and allied sites ... aspeasant villages' (e.g. Richards 1990a; 1991; 1993; Parker Pearson& Richards 1994). That much recent work has been overlooked in thepreparation of MacKie (1997) is shown by the supposed recentconfirmation (1997: 338) of the distribution of Grooved Ware in twowidely separated areas, in the far north and northwest of Scotland, andin southern England and East Anglia East Anglia(ăng`glēə), kingdom of Anglo-Saxon England, comprising the modern counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. It was settled in the late 5th cent. by so-called Angles from northern Germany and Scandinavia. . Manby's work in Yorkshire,which pre-dates S&S (Manby 1974), and the results of a series ofexcavations in southeastern Scotland since the 1970s (Mercer 1981;Barclay & Russell-White 1993; Stevenson 1995; and now Barclay &Maxwell 1998) surely cannot be dismissed in this way. S&S was set out in three main parts: an introduction, a sectionentitled `The Achievement' and a third entitled `The Society'.In the introduction it is made clear that MacKie based his argument onthree foundations that he felt were firm: 1 the calibration of radiocarbon dates, which many archaeologiststhen used as if it provided calendar year determinations accurate to afew tens of years; it was also assumed that relatively few dates couldprovide a secure dating sequence for a site; 2 Alexander Thom's ideas about prehistoric astronomy, geometryand mensuration mensuration/men��su��ra��tion/ (men?ser-a��shun) the act or process of measuring. ; and 3 the results of the excavations at Durrington Walls Durrington Walls is a prehistoric henge enclosure monument situated close to Woodhenge on Salisbury Plain. It is a Class II henge and measures around 500m in diameter. Along with the other giant examples at Avebury, Marden and Mount Pleasant in Dorset it is one of the 'super-henge' , in particularthe interpretation of the circular timber settings as roofedbuildings--the dwellings of an elite (Wainwright & Longworth 1971). Time has dealt harshly with all three, or at least the way in whichthey can be used. Radiocarbon In the last 20 years the calibration of radiocarbon dates has beenshown to be far less cut and dried cut and driedcut adj (also: cut-and-dry) (answer) → eindeutig: (solution) → einfachthan was at first believed (Aitken1990: 98-101; Ashmore 1996; 1998), and MacKie's use of calibrateddates in S&S, the norm in the 1970s, as though they allowed exactrelative dating Before the advent of absolute dating in the 20th century, archaeologists and geologists were largely limited to the use of Relative Dating techniques. It estimates the order of prehistoric and geological events were determined by using basic stratigraphic rules, and by observing , is no longer tenable ten��a��ble?adj.1. Capable of being maintained in argument; rationally defensible: a tenable theory.2. . His assertions of thecontemporaneity of key sites are therefore no longer sustainable. Astronomy, geometry and metrology The work of Alexander Thom For the Scottish-born military surgeon and politician in Lower Canada, see Alexander Thom (military surgeon).Professor Alexander Thom (1894–1985) was a Scottish engineer most famous for his theory of the Megalithic yard. has been subjected to detailed scrutiny.While the last 20 years have seen a broad archaeological acceptance of aprehistoric interest in the cosmos and the movements of the sun andmoon, Thom's claims for high-precision astronomical alignments havenot been substantiated, quite apart from his ethnocentric eth��no��cen��trism?n.1. Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.2. Overriding concern with race.eth interpretations of them (Ruggles 1999: chapter 2) (see below).Thom's hypotheses on geometry and mensuration have also beenchallenged, and largely dismissed, from both archaeological andstatistical perspectives (Ruggles 1999:82-3 and references). In brief, Thom (1955; 1967) had argued for the existence of aprehistoric unit of measurement--the `megalithic meg��a��lith?n.A very large stone used in various prehistoric architectures or monumental styles, notably in western Europe during the second millennium b.c. yard' or MY--whichwas defined so precisely that `standard' measuring sticks wouldhave had to be used to communicate it from one end of Britain to theother (Thom & Thom 1978: 177). He also concluded that manynon-circular stone rings were laid out using certain constructions, someof considerable complexity, which involved knowledge of the techniquesof Euclidean geometry. The latter conclusion was challengedmathematically by authors such as Angell (1977), who showed that anumber of different multi-parameter shapes, some less complex toconstruct in practice than Thom's, could be fitted equally well tothe groundplans considered by Thom. It was also challenged byarchaeologists such as Barnatt & Moir (1984) who concluded that themajority of stone circles could simply have been laid out by eye toappear circular. Barnatt & Herring (1986) documented an experimentin which over 100 circles were set out by eye by a range of individuals;it was found that these `circles' could then all be described bythe `complex geometries' of Thom, even though they had not been setout using them. MacKie's quotation (1977a: 16) from Dingle (1972)is particularly resonant: the greatest danger is the fallacy to believe that `everything thatis mathematically true must have a physical counterpart; and not onlyso, but must have the particular physical counterpart that happens toaccord with the theory that the mathematician wishes to advocate'. It is as well to remind ourselves that any shape may be describedby complex geometry In mathematics, complex geometry is the study of complex manifolds and functions of many complex variables. , but that there is no evidence that the shape waslaid out using it (Angell 1977). The dataset used by Thom to deduce the existence of the MYcomprises the diameters of best-fit circles imposed on over 100 roughlycircular stone rings. Even if the data are taken at face value, thestatistical evidence for a common unit of length is, at best, marginal,and even if it is accepted as existing, our knowledge of its value isonly of the order of centimetres, far poorer than the 1-mm precisionclaimed by Thom (Kendall 1974; Freeman 1976; Angell 1979). The evidenceis adequately explained by, say, a common practice of pacing (Heggie1981: chapter 3). Huxley's wise comment (1869), ironically alsoquoted by MacKie (1977a: 16), sums up our view: this seems to be one of the many cases in which the admittedaccuracy of mathematical processes is allowed to throw a whollyinadmissible That which, according to established legal principles, cannot be received into evidence at a trial for consideration by the jury or judge in reaching a determination of the action. appearance of authority over the result obtained by them... pages of formulae will not get a definite result out of loose data. Durrington Walls and the Neolithic of Wessex Finally, MacKie'suse of the evidence from Durrington Walls and the other multiple timberring sites is selective. In all his papers he presents as acknowledgedfact that the timber structures were roofed, and disregardsMusson's conclusions in the final report (Musson 1971). MacKiestates (1977a: 164-5) that consideration of the problem by a professional architect led him tothe conclusion that there was no evidence against ... roofed buildingsbut that size. spacing and general arrangements were consistent with thehypothesis that they had once supported fairly massive, conicalsuperstructures. However, Musson makes it clear that the patterns of posts atDurrington Walls, Woodhenge and the Sanctuary allow equally well forunroofed as well as roofed interpretations. He states clearly (1971:375) that the explanation seems `more closely related to a purelynumerical or dimensional reasoning than to any structural logic'and that `it must be stressed again that no conclusive evidence CONCLUSIVE EVIDENCE. That which cannot be contradicted by any other evidence,; for example, a record, unless impeached for fraud, is conclusive evidence between the parties. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 3061-62. has beenproduced that these monuments were in fact roofed buildings'.Gibson (1998: 104) has recently noted that `the negative arguments whichMusson produced ... have largely been ignored' by subsequentwriters. Barrett's perceptive re-analysis of the southern circle atDurrington Walls (1994: 20-24), not referenced by MacKie, hasdemonstrated a far more complex construction sequence and simultaneouslyprovided a more convincing interpretation of the structures -- the`steady embellishment of [a] locale' through a `lengthy andpiecemeal programme of construction', rather than two phases ofmassive roofed building. The subsequent discovery of vast complexes ofconcentric rings of posts clearly far too large to roof (as recently atStanton Drew, where nine concentric rings between 23 m and 95 m indiameter have been located (David 1998)), must cast further doubt onMacKie's assertions. In Scotland Mercer (1981: 159) proposed aconvincing interpretation of the concentric circles of posts within thehenge hengeNouna circular monument, often containing a circle of stones, dating from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages [from Stonehenge] at Balfarg (Fife) as a series of barriers. Social theory There is surely irony in MacKie's (1977a) criticism ofarchaeologists for avoiding social theory before that time, as it is thesubsequent development of a complex body of social theory byarchaeologists (e.g. in the context of archaeoastronomy, Thorpe 1983)that exposes the weaknesses of his own cultural-historical approach tothe later Neolithic. In the main body of S&S, and more recently(1997: 339) MacKie always offers a limited choice to the reader: eitherhis preferred Maya-style hierarchy or a `barbarian' or `simplepeasant' society that only undertook construction for utilitarianpurposes. For example, the interpretative choices for henges are either 1 the site of `barbarian rituals concerned with economicneeds' or 2 (as MacKie would wish) `ceremonial centres of skilled learnedorders'. Or again: society is either `predominantly homogeneous, segmentedand rural' or a `complex, highly stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. hierarchicalorganisation with advanced political structure and many specialisedgroups, almost a proto-urban society in fact'. In contrast to theoffering of `barbarian peasants', Richards and others (Richards1990a; 1991; 1993; Parker Pearson & Richards 1994) have demonstratedthe complexity of the society that built and used the later Neolithicsettlements, perhaps even involving `ritual specialists', withoutresorting to MacKie's model. Regional archaeologies But there are broader problems. The 1977 study is a product of itsperiod: there were very limited amounts of reliable excavated data inmost parts of the country, and the creation of a coherent `story'required the pulling together of material widely separatedgeographically. This process tended to create homogenous, broad brushprehistories that underemphasized regional variation and promoted adiffusionist approach. It is possible to see now that the sites drawntogether to create a `British Neolithic' are probably parts ofdifferent regional `Neolithics' throughout Britain and Ireland(Kinnes 1985; Harding et al. 1996; Cooney 1997; Barclay 1997a; inpress). We must also consider the extent to which Orkney's supposedprominence in the Neolithic (e.g. as a destination for pilgrimage --MacKie 1994) is an accurate reflection of prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to , or whether it is,to some extent, a product of the recent history of investigation(Barclay in press). We therefore believe that MacKie's 1977 consideration ofNeolithic society has not stood the test of time. The excavations atDurrington Walls cannot be interpreted now as directly applicable tomaterial many hundreds of kilometres away, as it was believed they could20 years ago; there is a far greater understanding of regional diversityin the Neolithic in Britain. It is significant, for example, that MacKiedraws such diverse monuments as the henges and recumbent stone circles Recumbent stone circles are a variation on the more familiar standard stone circles found throughout the British Isles and Brittany. The recumbent circle is a form peculiar to the north east of Scotland. Recumbent stone circles date back to approx 3000 BC. into his homogenous cultural, astronomical and geometrical structure; itcan be seen that the distribution of henges and RSCs is almost mutuallyexclusive Adj. 1. mutually exclusive - unable to be both true at the same timecontradictoryincompatible - not compatible; "incompatible personalities"; "incompatible colors" (FIGURE 1), and it has been suggested that, if the monumenttypes are broadly contemporary, their very different nature and the waysthat members of the classes inter-relate may indicate considerabledifferences in ceremonial practice and indeed in social structure(Barnatt 1989; Barclay 1997a). MacKie's reliance on the evidence ofWessex to interpret material in the rest of Britain, and theidentification of Stonehenge and Silbury Hill Silbury Hill (grid reference SU100685), part of the complex of Neolithic monuments around Avebury in the English county of Wiltshire (which includes the West Kennet Long Barrow), is the tallest prehistoric man-made mound in Europe[1] and one of the world's largest. as drawing on resourcesfrom a British-wide base, rests on a view of British prehistory that fewwould now find acceptable. [FIGURE 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] A further fundamental weakness of MacKie's approach, both in1977 and 20 years later, is the assumption that the data he has to workwith is complete (cf. Barclay 1997h). For example, his assumption thatthe three later Neolithic settlements known in Orkney at that time --Skara Brae, Rinyo and Links of Noltland -- were all there ever were oftheir kind, and could therefore be seen as rare, elite, settlements, hasbeen shown to be erroneous by later work. We can see that otherexcavated settlements display broadly similar characteristics, andfurther discoveries continue to come to light (Barclay 1996 andreferences). Problems with MacKie's interpretation In summary, the problemswith MacKie's hypothesized social structure are as follows: 1 the Megalithic Yard The megalithic yard (sometimes abbreviated to MY) is a theoretical unit of prehistoric measurement first suggested by the Scottish engineer, Alexander Thom in 1955. Origins of the megalithic yard is not supported by the statistical evidence,and simple `by eye' construction can explain the shapes of stonerings just as well as complex `laying out geometries'; 2 as will be discussed below, the precise astronomy proposed byThom can be seen as a modern scientific imposition upon an intense, butdifferent, interest in the sky; 3 the contemporaneity of events suggested by MacKie (1977a) basedon a common 1970s view of [sup.14 C] calibration is no longerdemonstrable; 4 it is no longer believed possible to make up deficiencies inevidence in one area by drawing on material from another, that may havedifferent meanings; 5 there is no evidence that the `roofed buildings' atDurrington Walls and other sites were in fact roofed; it seems veryunlikely that they were the elite dwelling places claimed by MacKie; 6 the societies of later Neolithic Orkney need not necessarily lieat one of the two extremes (`barbarous peasant' and `wiseman') offered by MacKie. Solar alignments, cosmologies and calendars Solstitial sol��stice?n.1. Either of two times of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance from the celestial equator. The summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere occurs about June 21, when the sun is in the zenith at the tropic of Cancer; alignments and cosmology The tendency to measureprehistoric astronomy -- along with mensuration and geometry -- againstthe yardstick of modern science has, it seems, finally been laid to rest(Ruggles 1999: 80-81; Ruggles in press and references). However, thereis no doubt that architectural alignments with celestial bodies andevents are potentially of considerable importance within broaderinvestigations of ways in which of the location and form of monumentsserved to express meaningful cosmological relationships, and the ways inwhich such relationships were exploited (Ruggles & Saunders 1993;Ruggles 1999: chapter 9). A variety of local groups of similar monumentsin Britain and Ireland from the early Neolithic through to the middleBronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the show striking consistencies in orientation (Ruggles 1998;1999: chapter 8), which suggest that celestial referents were used inthe broadest sense to determine direction. Furthermore, many of theseare confined to sectors of the horizon roughly demarcated by thecardinal directions or the directions of sunrise or sunset at thesolstices (which from here onwards, we shall refer to simply as the`solstitial directions'). In specific cases, such as the recumbentstone circles of northeast Scotland and the short stone rows of theIrish southwest, there is apparently a strong relationship to the moon(Ruggles 1999: chapters 5, 6). What these studies show perhaps mostimportantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially is there is no overall pattern of development but rathervarious regional patterns of continuity and change. In this context, the suggestion that the great passage tomb at MaesHowe may have been engineered in relation to the midwinter mid��win��ter?n.1. The middle of the winter.2. The period of the winter solstice, about December 22.midwinterNoun1. the middle or depth of winter2. sunset iscertainly not surprising in itself; there are other specific cases ofthe orientation of public monuments upon solstitial sunrise or sunset,examples now well known in the archaeological literature ranging fromthe Dorchester and Dorset cursus The Dorset Cursus is a Neolithic cursus monument that spans across 10 km (6? miles) of the chalk downland of Cranborne Chase in east Dorset, United Kingdom. Its extreme length makes it a notable example of this class of linear earthwork; it is better interpreted as a pair of monuments (Bradley & Chambers 1988;Barrett et al. 1991: 56-7) to Wessex henges (Ruggles 1999:138 andreferences), Newgrange (O'Kelly 1982) and Balnuaran of Clava(Bradley 1998). Some argue that harmonizing a monument with the cosmosin this way helped to affirm its place at the centre of things (e.g.Renfrew 1984: 178-80); others that this helped to place its operationabove challenge and thereby reinforced political control (e.g. Barrettet al. 1991: 56). Yet others point out that astronomical alignmentsserved to place a monument in time, empowering it perhaps with specialmeanings on certain regular occasions (cf. Bradley 1993: 68; Darvill1996: 177-8; Ruggles 1999: 154). There is also much evidence fromhistorical and modern indigenous communities of the widespreadimportance of the solstitial directions in schemes of sacred geography(Ruggles 1999: 148 and references). In fact, there has been considerable confusion in the literature asto whether the passage at Maes Howe is in fact oriented such that thelight from the setting sun at midwinter does illuminate the rear wall ofthe chamber (e.g. Ritchie 1985: 127; Parker Pearson 1993: 59) or whetherthis actually occurs a few weeks earlier and later (Burl 1981: 251). Onemust also consider the shift in the position of midwinter sunset sincethe time of construction (about half a degree). MacKie's discussionof the bent shape of the passage (MacKie 1997: 345-56) and clearpresentation of the horizon profile information do a great deal toclarify the basic data. MacKie shows that the outer straight section(`axis B') is more or less aligned upon the setting point of thesolstitial sun in the early 3rd millennium BC whereas the inner straightsection (`axis A') is aligned more than 5 [degrees] further roundto the west. But such matters should be interpreted in context. We cannot ignorethe fact that the orientations of central hearths in Orcadian housesfall into four clearly separate, although wide, bands centred roughlyupon the four solstitial directions (Richards 1990a: figure 5.5; ParkerPearson & Richards 1994: figure 2.3). This is strongly suggestivethat they were constrained according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. quadripartite QUADRIPARTITE. Having four parts, or divided into four parts; as, this indenture quadripartite made between A B, of the one part, C D, of the second part, E P, of the third part, and G H, of the fourth part. cosmologicalprinciples associated with the solstices. The structural similaritybetween Maes Howe and the principal building at Barnhouse, and theapproximate orientation of the latter upon midwinter sunrise (Richards1990b: 312-13), is suggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. a dichotomy between houses for theliving and monuments for the dead which is reflected in a symbolicdichotomy between the rising and the setting sun. These modestinterpretations are consistent with the wider archaeoastronomicalevidence concerning houses for the living as well as those for the dead,but are suggestive of broad cosmologies rather than exact calendars.Furthermore, they are not affected by the subtleties of the exact playof sunlight in the Maes Howe passage at or close to midwinter. Using video evidence and three-dimensional computer models, VictorReijs has recently demonstrated that sunlight strikes the back of thechamber shortly before sunset for some 35 days on either side of thesolstice, and did so for perhaps 40 days either side 5000 years ago(http:// www.geniet.demon.nl/maeshowe/ see also Ashmore in press). Thisin itself also suggests that the orientation of that tomb was designedwithout great precision of alignment in mind. The horizon at Maes Howe MacKie, however, goes considerably further in insisting that MaesHowe was an `observing instrument'. Even though he now distanceshimself from claims of `scientific' astronomy, he continuesstrongly to endorse Thom's claim that prehistoric people set upalignments of high precision, using features on the distant naturalhorizon as foresights (MacKie 1997: 340-41). He also maintains that theyprovide evidence of `scientific capability', Maes Howe functioningas a `solar temple/observatory' (1997: 343). On a factual level, the data relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acccertain points on thesouthwestern horizon are in almost complete agreement with anunpublished theodolite theodolite(thēŏd`əlīt'), calibrated optical instrument used to determine relative position in surveying, navigation, and meteorology. survey of Maes Howe undertaken by one of thepresent authors (CR) in August 1979 (from a point 10 m from the presententrance on axis B). The results for three common points are shown inTABLE 1. TABLE 1. A comparison of horizon data from independent surveys atMaes Howe by Ruggles (1979, previously unpublished) and MacKie (asreported in MacKie 1997). MacKie's data are shown in squarebrackets. AzWard Hill, 217 [degrees] [multiplied by] 1left slope, junction [217 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0]with nearby groundWard Hill, 222 [degrees] [multiplied by] 9right slope, junction [222 [degrees] [multiplied by] 9]with nearby groundCuilags, 225 [degrees] [multiplied by] 7left slope, junction [225 [degrees] [multiplied by] 6]with nearby ground AltWard Hill, 1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 3left slope, junction [1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 3]with nearby groundWard Hill, 1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0right slope, junction [1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0]with nearby groundCuilags, 0 [degrees] [multiplied by] 9left slope, junction [0 [degrees] [multiplied by] 9]with nearby ground DecWard Hill, -23 [degrees] [multiplied by] 4left slope, junction [-23 [degrees] [multiplied by] 4]with nearby groundWard Hill, -21 [degrees] [multiplied by] 6right slope, junction [-21 [degrees] [multiplied by] 6]with nearby groundCuilags, -20 [degrees] [multiplied by] 7left slope, junction [-21 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0]with nearby ground There are therefore no reasonable grounds for doubting the azimuth azimuth(ăz`əməth), in astronomy, one coordinate in the altazimuth coordinate system. It is the angular distance of a body measured westward along the celestial horizon from the observer's south point. ,altitude and declination declination,in astronomy, one of the coordinates in the equatorial coordinate system. The declination of a celestial body is its angular distance north or south of the celestial equator measured along its hour circle. figures quoted by MacKie for these and otherpoints in the southwestern horizon as viewed from Maes Howe. It is in the interpretation of these data that we are in strongdisagreement with MacKie. His claim is that Maes Howe is a `multiplecalendar site' incorporating two precise alignments upon horizonfeatures marking sunset at two epoch dates in Alexander Thom's16-month solar calendar. Before examining these specific conclusions itis necessary to review the wider interpretative context in which theyhave been formulated. Calendars and continuity MacKie (1997: 340) states that `the reality of ... solar calendaralignments is shown by independent archaeological and historicalevidence which supports also the existence of the sixteen"month" calendar inferred statistically by Thom'. He alsostrongly contends that this solar calendar was not only widespread inBritain in Neolithic times but that the solstices, equinoxes andmid-quarter days continued to be important through to the Iron Age,where they were incorporated in the ancient Celtic calendar The term Celtic calendar is used to refer to a variety of calendars used by Celtic-speaking peoples at different times in history. Continental Celtic CalendarThe Gaulish Coligny calendar is possibly the oldest Celtic solar/lunar ritual calendar. as festivalssuch as Beltane and Samhain, and hence survived through to modern times(MacKie 1997: 355). Despite the support for this idea that has been shown by some otherarchaeologists (e.g. Burl 1988: 197)and archaeoastronomers (e.g. Krupp1994: xi), it rests upon the assumption that dividing the year into 8 or16 precisely equal parts was likely to have been important toprehistoric people. This may seem natural from a modern Europeanperspective where time is seen as an abstract `axis', but isunconvincing in the context of a non-Western world-view where notions of(space and) time are likely to have been highly contextualized (Shanks& Tilley 1987: chapter 5; McCluskey 1998: 4-5). In any case, theevidence to support it is slight. 1 The evidence for Thom's solar calendar derives fromaccumulations of declinations corresponding to the upper limb In human anatomy, the upper limb (also upper extremity) refers to what in common English is known as the arm, that is, the region of the shoulder to the fingertips. It includes the entire limb, and thus, is not synonymous with the term upper arm. of the sunrising or setting at dates at intervals coming or happening with intervals between; now and then.See also: Interval of one-eighth (and possiblyone-sixteenth) of a year measured from either solstice (the `epoch'dates). It is important to realize that the evidence -- from Thom's(1967) large-scale analyses of 145 `megalithic sites' -- comes froma variety of `indications' from many different types of megalithicstructures scattered throughout Britain (cf. Ruggles 1999: 52). Thiswide variety is worrying in itself if there really was uniformity ofastronomical and calendrical practice throughout Britain (Fleming 1975).It is also important to realize that the declination targets are`fuzzy' because the number of days in a year is neither integralnor divisible DIVISIBLE. The susceptibility of being divided. 2. A contract cannot, in general, be divided in such a manner that an action may be brought, or a right accrue, on a part of it. 2 Penna. R. 454. by 16 (Ruggles 1999: 54-5). This increases the flexibilityof being able to interpret any particular alignment as calendrical.Thom's data were thoroughly re-examined and reassessed by one ofthe present authors (CR) in the course of a major survey project between1975 and 1981. Thom's results could not be reproduced once strictattention was paid to the demonstrably fair selection of data, and theinescapable conclusion was that the apparent accumulations ofdeclinations at the calendrical epochs can easily be accounted for asdata selection effects (Ruggles 1984; 1999: 70, figure 3.3). 2 Once Thom's own data are discounted, no evidence fromcoherent local groups of monuments supports the idea of an 8- or 16-partcalendar; there are only isolated and scattered examples of putativealignments upon `calendrical' epoch dates (Ruggles 1999: 142). 3 The geometric designs on the Bush Barrow The Bush Barrow is a site of the early British Bronze Age (ca. 2000 BC), at the western end of the Normanton Down Barrows cemetery. It is among the most important sites of the Stonehenge complex. It was excavated in 1808 by Sir Richard Colt-Hoare and William Cunnington. gold lozenge lozenge/loz��enge/ (loz��enj) [Fr.]1. troche; a discoid-shaped, solid, medicinal preparation for solution in the mouth, consisting of an active ingredient incorporated in a suitably flavored base.2. have beeninterpreted by A.S. Thom and colleagues as a device for implementingThom's solar calendar (Thom et al. 1988) and are cited by MacKie(1997: 340) as further evidence in support of the idea of the Neolithicsolar calendar. By holding the lozenge horizontally and in a certainorientation, Thom et al. argue that the directions of sunrise and sunset Sunrise and Sunset are a pair of pegasi in the Dungeons & Dragons-based Forgotten Realms setting. The pair were rescued from giants by the moon elf Tarathiel a few years prior to 1370 DR, and after this they served as winged mounts for him and his partner, at the calendrical epoch dates are marked on the lozenge. However, theregularity of the decorative design, the fact that only a small andapparently arbitrary subset of the lines actually appear to correlatewith epoch directions, and the fact that the majority of the directionsdo not fit with lines on the artefact See artifact. at all (cf. Ruggles 1999: figure8.10) all argue strongly against this. The arbitrary nature of thetheory is highlighted by North's (1996: 508-9)criticisms of it andthe fact that he manages to impose an equally complex but completelydifferent interpretation of his own (1996: 511-8). There is also theproblem, acknowledged by North, that other lozenges exist, similar inform and decoration but with different angles, which do not appearsusceptible to his own arguments or those of Thom et al. The Bush Barrowlozenge, like the others, is certainly a very fine decorative artefact,representing a high order of technological achievement, but itsinterpretation as a calendrical device is speculative. 4 The evidence to support the idea of a ubiquitous `Celtic'calendar existing in later Iron Age times, with its seasonal festivalsdividing the year into eight precisely equal parts, is itself very muchweaker than is generally assumed (for detailed arguments see Ruggles1999:141-2 and references). Attractive as it may be to envisage threads of continuity fromearly Neolithic through to Iron Age and even modern times, there ishowever a great deal of evidence that contradicts this conclusion, andwe cannot agree with MacKie (1997: 340) that the existing evidenceprovides any support, let alone strong support, for the idea of`calendrical' alignments. High-precision alignments Thom's 1967 analysis was followed by a succession ofpublications in which he argued the case for the existence ofastronomical alignments of ever greater precision, finally claiming theexistence of some which were precise to a single minute of arc (cf.Ruggles 1999: chapter 2). These claims were subjected to detailedreassessments by one of the present authors (CR) during the early 1980s(Ruggles 1981; 1982; 1983; 1999: chapter 2). It is misleading for MacKieto assert (1997: 340) that the statistical arguments against allegedhigh-precision alignments `have been shown to be circular'. Thearticle quoted in support of this (MacKie 1986) states thathigh-precision alignments were not found in a large independent surveyof evidence from western Scotland by CR (Ruggles 1984) because they werenot looked for. In claiming this MacKie himself ignored, and continuesto ignore, an existing body of earlier published work directlyaddressing the very question of high-precision alignments andreassessing Thom's data in detail (Ruggles 1981; 1982; 1983). Theearlier publications by Ruggles show beyond any reasonable doubt thatall Thom's putative astronomical sightlines of a precision greaterthan about half a degree can be quite adequately accounted for as chanceoccurrences. Even the existence of deliberate high-precision solstitialforesights at `classic' sites such as Ballochroy and Kintraw (cf.MacKie 1997: 342) is questionable (Ruggles 1999:19-29 and referencestherein). In sum, the case in favour of high-precision astronomy iscompletely unproven. And to say that `there is increasing evidence ...that ... the sixteen "month" Neolithic solar calendar was areality' (MacKie 1997: 355) ignores an overwhelming range ofevidence to the contrary. The alignment evidence from Maes Howe Returning to the alignment evidence from Maes Howe, we must bear inmind the definition of the calendrical alignments set out by MacKie(1997: 340): To be plausible the structure must have some built-in directionindicator which points to [a] ... distant natural mark on the horizonlike a notch or hill slope which is the foresight. To achieve adequate precision, we should expect to find alignmentsupon places on the horizon where the upper limb of the sun rises or setson dates at some multiple of 1/16-year from either solstice. Theseshould be marked by conspicuous horizon features such as notches betweendistant hills, and `indicated' by archaeologically evidentstructures. We can now examine the specific alignments listed in MacKie 1997:table 1. 1 Axis B, as already discussed, was approximately aligned upon theupper limb of the solstitial setting sun. There is no horizon foresightat this point; the horizon is relatively close and featureless, a littleover 1 [degrees] to the left of the point where the left slope of WardHill disappears behind the closer ground. 2 Axis A is aligned on a point some 1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 5to the left of where the right slope of Ward Hill disappears behindcloser ground. It is thus a plausible, though not precise, indicator ofthe latter point, whose declination, -21 [degrees] [multiplied by] 6,does correspond (within the margins of uncertainty mentioned above) tothe upper limb of the setting sun at a time 1/16 of a year before orafter the winter solstice winter solsticen.In the Northern Hemisphere, the solstice that occurs on or about December 22.winter solsticeNoun . The upper limb of the sun would actuallyreappear at this point, so this is a classic Thomian foresight. 3 The right-hand end of Cuilags is not indicated. According toMacKie it yields a Declination -17 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0,corresponding to a centre disc declination of -17 [degrees] [multipliedby] 3. The declination of centre of the sun on the appropriatemid-quarter days would be between -16 [degrees] [multiplied by] 8 and-16 [degrees] [multiplied by] 0 (Ruggles 1999: 55). MacKie proposes thata bump at the top of the slope, rather than the extreme right-hand end,might have been the foresight, but its declination -16 [degrees][multiplied by] 6, corresponding to a centre disc declination of -16[degrees] [multiplied by] 9, is still marginal if it is to beinterpreted as a precise mid-quarter day alignment. Only (2) fits MacKie's own criteria for a calendricalalignment, and only then if an indication 1 [degrees] [multiplied by] 5to the left of the target is thought to be acceptable. (1) has noforesight. (3) has no indication, and is also only marginal as aindicator of the appropriate calendar date, and then if one makes theassumption that a secondary feature, rather than the right-hand end ofthe slope itself, was the intended foresight. In view of the fact that there is no convincing background evidencefor calendrical alignments, we would be inclined to put down the precisecalendrical alignments proposed at Maes Howe to chance. On the otherhand, we would be inclined to accept the idea that the outer axis (AxisB) was aligned upon midwinter sunset, to `good' but not to`calendrical' precision. The argument that the solstitial sunitself may originally have shone down the passage after passing througha light-slit above the door (MacKie 1997: 356) has been published before(Welfare & Fairley 1980: 93, quoted in Ritchie 1982) and certainlyseems plausible and worthy of further investigation. We would also beinclined to accept that the general alignment of the tomb passage upon`the most conspicuous natural foresights on the southern mainland ofOrkney' (MacKie 1997: 357) might also have been deliberate, andmeaningful, in itself. The general alignment upon the standing stone at Barnhouse and theHills of Hoy, as well as roughly with the midwinter sunset, accords withother instances where monuments are aligned upon conspicuous features inthe landscape, man-made and natural, and/or celestial bodies and events,all as part of organizing the landscape according to the principles of acosmology that does not separate people, land and sky into separatecategories but in which they are intimately tied together. This is verydifferent from the sort of view of time as abstraction, stronglyredolent red��o��lent?adj.1. Having or emitting fragrance; aromatic.2. Suggestive; reminiscent: a campaign redolent of machine politics. of a modern Western world-view, which encourages thoughts ofdividing the solar year into exactly equal parts. The alignment evidence front Howe In a separate paper, MacKie (1998) has examined a sequence ofstructures from Neolithic times through to the Iron Age at Howe, some4.5 km west-southwest of Maes Howe and 3 km southwest of the Ring ofBrodgar across the Loch of Stenness. Unfortunately he has not referredto Hingley's more wide-ranging survey of the re-use of Neolithicmonuments in Scotland in the Iron Age, in which the relationship betweenthe features at Howe is placed in a broader context (Hingley 1996). On a factual level, MacKie is to be congratulated on determiningthe correct orientation of the passage of the Neolithic tomb The Neolithic tombs of Northwestern Europe, particularly Ireland, were built by the Neolithic (New Stone Age) people in the period 4000 - 2000 BC. There are four main types: Passage graves Portal dolmens Court cairns Wedge-shaped gallery graves at Howefrom confused earlier reports and on his clear presentation of theorientation and horizon profile data (MacKie 1998: table 1 & figure3). The problem is once again in the interpretation. The reader shouldrecall that the nature of the evidence invoked to support a preciseThomian calendar is supposed repeated alignments upon precise epochdates at 1/8 or 1/16-year intervals from either solstice, marked by theupper limb of the sun rising or setting behind conspicuous horizonfeatures such as notches between distant hills, `indicated' byarchaeologically evident structures (cf. MacKie 1998: 10, 12). In fact, none of the potential alignments listed and illustrated byMacKie (1998: table 1 & figure 3) fulfils these criteria. 1 To judge from MacKie 1998: figure 2, the axis of the the diameter of the sphere which is perpendicular to the plane of the circle.See also: Axis stalledcairn cairn,pile of stones, usually conical in shape, raised as a landmark or a memorial. In prehistoric times it was usually erected over a burial. A barrow is sometimes called a cairn. or rectangular house S seems to be somewhat (perhaps as much as 4[degrees]) to the right of the azimuth (123 [degrees]) marked. Thechosen orientation appears to have been selected because it correspondsapproximately to the azimuth of the upper limb of the Quarter Day risingsun. However, this event occurs on a featureless stretch of horizon, sothere is no horizon foresight to mark it. 2 The orientation of the passage tomb points at a saddle betweenthe conspicuous hills of Mid Hill and Ward Hill, but the declination(-10 [degrees] [multiplied by] 6) has no obvious astronomicalinterpretation -- and certainly none in terms of Thom's 16-monthcalendar, for which the closest epoch declination is around -8 [degrees][multiplied by] 5 (Ruggles 1999: 55). 3 What is interpreted as an open-ended cross-passage between the`stalled cairn' and mortuary house In archaeology and anthropology a mortuary house is any purpose-built structure, often resembling a normal dwelling in many ways, in which a dead body is buried.Following the laying to rest of the deceased, who is often surrounded with grave goods, an earthwork called a aligns in the southwest upon adramatic cleft between the distant hills of Hoy. For a few days aroundmidwinter, the disc of the setting sun would have passed across thiscleft (whose lowest point has a declination -25 [degrees] [multipliedby] 0). But note that the whole sun appeared here -- this was a dramaticaffirmation of the relationship between the setting sun on days close tomidwinter, and the visible horizon at that place. The top limb of themidwinter setting sun did not appear in a notch or twinkle down ahillslope, so there is no evidence of the use of the horizon as anobserving `instrument' to pinpoint the solstice. A similar argumentapplies to the appearance of this same cleft from the nearby Ring ofBrodgar (MacKie 1998: figure 3d), from which the declination of the baseof the cleft is only slightly greater (-24 [degrees] [multiplied by] 9). Additionally, no information is given regarding the northeasterly north��east��er��ly?adj.1. Situated toward the northeast.2. Coming or being from the northeast.north��east alignmentof the cross-passage, and there is no apparent reason (other than theastronomical potential of the southwesterly south��west��er��ly?adj.1. Situated toward the southwest.2. Coming or being from the southwest.south��west alignment) for selectingthis direction in preference as the one that was meaningful to thebuilders. 4 The Keelylang Hill profile (MacKie 1998: table 1 & figure 3b)is not indicated. A shallow dip in the horizon at this point, whosedeclination according to MacKie is -0 [degrees] [multiplied by] 1,corresponds roughly to equinoctial e��qui��noc��tial?adj.1. Relating to an equinox.2. Relating to the celestial equator.n.1. A violent storm of wind and rain occurring at or near the time of the equinox.2. sunrise, although the upper limb ofthe equinoctial sun would actually appear approximately 1 [degrees] (twosolar diameters) to the left. There is no reason other than itsastronomical potential to mark it out for special attention from a largenumber of possible horizon features of equal prominence in otherdirections. These data provide no compelling evidence for an interest inThom's calendar in Neolithic times. This is not to say, however,that certain alignments upon conspicuous features in the landscape, andimportant celestial events, might not have been significant. Indeed, thegeneral orientation of the passage tomb upon a conspicuous set of hills,as at Maes Howe, may well have been intentional. Furthermore, theapparent alignment of a cross-passage both upon a dramatic cleft betweenthe distant hills of Hoy, and approximately upon midwinter sunset, doessuggest that there was a deliberate encapsulation (1) In object technology, the creation of self-contained modules that contain both the data and the processing. See object-oriented programming.(2) The transmission of one network protocol within another. of a dramaticrelationship between a spectacular terrestrial feature and the settingsun on days close to midwinter, which would have passed directly throughthe cleft, appearing to stand in it shortly before starting to disappearbelow the horizon. Plausible as these relationships are, it is impossible to agreethat the evidence from Howe gives any support to MacKie'scontention (1998: 37) that `concern with ... Quarter Day festivals nowseems likely to go back into the earlier part of the Neolithic period Neolithic periodor New Stone Age.The term neolithic is used, especially in archaeology and anthropology, to designate a stage of cultural evolution or technological development characterized by the use of stone tools, the existence of inOrkney'. The calendrical explanation derives from a reading of theevidence that falls into all the methodological traps identified by oneof the present authors (CR) many years ago (cf. Ruggles 1999: chapters1-3) -- criticisms that are ignored, and are certainly not addressed, inthese new papers. Conclusions As questions of landscape cognition and cosmology take their properplace in archaeological thought it becomes important to look forastronomical referents, since meaningful associations between celestialbodies and events and objects and actions in other parts of theperceived world are an important feature of non-Western world-views.Astronomical associations encapsulated in architecture, serving perhapsas metaphors for perceived properties of the cosmos, may give importantinsights into such perceptions in the past. Well-establishedarchaeoastronomical approaches, seeking to correlate the locations ofmonuments or houses in the landscape with celestial objects or events,are relevant as part of broader investigations. So also are novelapproaches such as Bradley's (1998) exploration, at the passagetombs at Balnuaran of Clava, of apparent conflicts between therequirements of sound structural design and the desire to conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" certain cosmological requirements, in this case a broad solstitialalignment. There remains considerable confusion in the archaeologicalliterature about matters astronomical. A relevant example is theerroneous claim that the latitude of Orkney is especially favouredbecause only here do the four directions of the rising and settingsolstitial sun fall at right-angles to one another (Parker Pearson 1993:59; Souden 1997: 122). In fact, the azimuths of solstitial sunrise andsunset are dependent upon the horizon altitude, and the most favourablelatitude is in fact around 55 [degrees]. Certainly it is impossible toachieve at the latitude of Orkney (59 [degrees]) (Ruggles 1999: 250). Archaeoastronomy has the potential to clarify such confusions, andhas an important role to play in broader studies of sacred geography andcosmology. The practice of presenting reliable and quantitativeorientation and horizon profile data, as MacKie has done at both MaesHowe and Howe, is thus to be applauded and encouraged. It is crucial,though, to ensure that the interpretation of such data is in tune withwider developments in archaeological thought relating to the relevantsocial and cognitive issues. This means abandoning a vision of a Mayan-type late Neolithic whichrests upon Wessex-oriented diffusionist prehistories and which ignoresso much that has been written about the period and about some of itsmost significant monuments in the last decade. It also means movingbeyond simplistic sim��plism?n.The tendency to oversimplify an issue or a problem by ignoring complexities or complications.[French simplisme, from simple, simple, from Old French; see simple interpretations featuring universal calendars whichrest implicitly upon modern Western-style abstract conceptions of spaceand time, and which themselves ignore a weight of contraryarchaeoastronomical evidence from the last two decades. Acknowledgements. 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