Correctional Education from the perspective of the prisoner student.

Correctional Education from the perspective of the prisoner student. Introduction Approximately two million men and women are currently incarcerated incarcerated/in��car��cer��at��ed/ (in-kahr��ser-at?ed) imprisoned; constricted; subjected to incarceration. in��car��cer��at��edadj.Confined or trapped, as a hernia. in the nation's penitentiaries (Butterfield, 2002). Ninety percentof these inmates will eventually be released from prison (Linton, 2004).The vast majority of these inmates enter prison without basic literacyskills or job training. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the U.S. Department of Education(Linton), approximately 75 percent of men and women released from prisonwill commit an additional offense within three years. The lack offinancial resources for correctional education, coupled by the negativestigma stigma:see pistil. Stigmamark of CainGod’s mark on Cain, a sign of his shame for fratricide. [O. T.: Genesis 4:15]scarlet letter associated with being an ex-convict, contributes greatly torecidivism recidivism:see criminology. . This assumption is based upon previous studies assessingcorrectional education's impact on recidivism (Nuttall, Hollmen,& Staley, 2003; Slater, 1994-1995). Thus, the importance ofeducation in the criminal justice system has not been given adequaterecognition. This study was an examination of prisoners' perceptions ofadult education. Where many studies on correctional education focus onrecidivism, this study attempted to gain the perspective of the prisoneron various aspects of correctional education, including previouseducational experiences, teacher to student interaction, and ability tofunction in the job market upon release. Using qualitative inquiry Qualitative Inquiry is an bi-monthly academic journal on qualitative research methodology. It focuses on methodological issues raised by qualitative research, rather than the research's content or results. ReferencesPublisher's Description methods, the study sought to discover prisoners' perceptions aboutattending classes, interacting with prison personnel in these classes,and how prisoners feel they would benefit from taking classes. Background Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the effectivenessof correctional education as a means of reducing recidivism (Nuttall,Hollmen & Staley 2003; Slater, 1994-1995). These studies show thatapproximately 60 percent of ex-convicts return to jail at least one moretime after release (Linton, 2004; Slater). According to Nuttall et al.,40 percent of young offenders aged 21 and under who earned a GeneralEquivalency equivalencythe combining power of an electrolyte. See also equivalent. Diploma (GED GEDabbr.1. general equivalency diploma2. general educational developmentGED(US) n abbr (Scol) (= general educational development) → ) while incarcerated returned to jail within 3years, compared to 54 percent of young offenders who did not have adiploma or complete a GED program while in prison. Similar results arereported when considering postsecondary education in correctionalsettings. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (1995) indicates the rateof recidivism for educated prisoners ranges from 15%--30% when studentstake college courses. Slater (1994-1995) not only concurs with thisfinding, but also finds that federal prisoners in general had arecidivism rate of 40 percent without college courses and 12 percent forthose prisoner who were released having participated in some collegecourses. Additional studies also conclude that prison education programssignificantly reduce recidivism (Slater; Turnbull, Lin, & Bajeva,1997). Chappell (2004) concludes that the higher the educationalattainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1]The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the , the higher the reduction of recidivism. Additionally,prisoners who are educated experience "beneficial effects onpost-release employment and institutional discipline (p.149)."Further, Chappell states that correctional education programs are costeffective and provide "a substantial return-on-investment forsociety (p.149)." This study showed that inmates who possessed atleast two years of college were re-arrested at a rate of 10% as comparedto a rate of 60% for those who do not possess this level of education.Chappell's review of correctional education articles also showedthat there is a positive relationship between education and recidivism.Similarly, Gordon and Weldon's (2003) study of correctionaleducation and recidivism shows that of the inmates who earned their GEDwhile incarcerated; only 4% were re-arrested as compared to the nationalrate of 65%. Finally, a 1992 study (Porporino and Robinson in Gordon)shows that federal offenders were tracked for a year after release todetermine the effects of education upon recidivism. Of the prisonersreleased, those who completed the ABE program had a re-arrest rate of30.1% as compared to 35.5% for those who were released before completionand 41.6% for those who withdrew from this educational program. Thoseinmates who completed vocational programs were re-arrested at a rate ofonly 8.75%; the recidivism rate for those who completed GED programs was6.71%. While the literature cites successes in adult education programs,some attention must be paid to the prior educational experiences ofprison inmates as well. Mageehon's (2003) study of women convictsshowed that the women who completed the GED program had experienced astrong academic connection in their kindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be through twelfth grade This article or section deals primarily with the United States and Canada and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. education that fostered academic growth behind bars. This is importantbecause, according to Mageehon, "correctional educators are in aunique position to be concerned about their students' pasts andfutures ... the women's experiences prior to incarceration Confinement in a jail or prison; imprisonment.Police officers and other law enforcement officers are authorized by federal, state, and local lawmakers to arrest and confine persons suspected of crimes. The judicial system is authorized to confine persons convicted of crimes. , thehistories of abuse and addiction, and their relationships with the powerbrokers both within the institution and outside the institution, mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. who they are as students (p.197)." Therefore, correctionaleducators should be aware of the relationship between prior experiencesand current experiences, as well as how other external factors influenceprison classroom success. The purpose of this study was to gain the unheard un��heard?adj.1. Not heard: unheard pleas for help.2. Not given a hearing; not listened to: unheard objections.3. perspective ofthe prisoner student regarding prison education programs. Specifically,the study focused on those GED, adult literacy, and vocational trainingprograms offered by the penal institution. Research indicated thecurrent availability of programs, a listing of programs that were cut asa result of the Omnibus omnibus:see bus. Crime Bill of 1994, and the dynamics ofinstitutional influence. Since the Crime Bill has affected correctionaleducation for over eleven years, the researcher sought alternatives forcorrectional education (programs implemented to serve prisoner studentsas a result of the Crime Bill). This study provided the researcher withan understanding of: * what correctional educators experience in the classroom, * what correctional educators feel prisoners need to accomplish inorder to be successful after release, * which programs prisoners perceive as effective in increasingtheir ability to obtain and retain employment, which programs they wouldlike to see offered, and what academic and job-related/vocationalknowledge prisoners possessed prior to incarceration. Finally, the researcher compared the program preferences ofprisoners with the programs currently available in an attempt to gaininsight into the question: how do prisoner students perceive theircorrectional education experience? Method When considering the correctional education experience, who are themajor stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. ? What does correctional education mean to a prisonerstudent? How does correctional education translate to post-releasesuccess? With little research on prisoner perceptions of thecorrectional education experience, there are many questions about thelife of the prisoner student to be answered. Thus, the primary focus ofthis study was to determine which pre-incarceration factors contributeto the correctional education experience, and how the educationalprogramming behind bars affects the future career, employment, andeducational goals of prisoner students. This study focused on three major factors: * the previous educational and employment experiences of theprisoner student and how these experiences impact educational choicesduring incarceration, * how the prisoner student perceived the correctional educationcourse offerings, class environments and instructors, and * how the combination of pre-incarceration experiences and thecorrectional education experience translate to successful re-integrationinto society. Therefore, the primary research question guiding this study was:How do prisoners perceive their correctional education experience?Secondary research questions guiding this study included: 1. What motivates students to attend class? 2. How do prior educational and employment experiences affectstudent motivation? 3. What is the institutional culture of the prison as it relates toeducation, and how does that affect the students? 4. Is there a discernable difference between the perceptions ofprison inmates and prison administration as they relate to correctionaleducation? 5. What are the causes of this discernable difference, if itexists? 6. What are prisoners' perceptions of what a successful persondoes? What career and educational aspirations do prisoners have? The research questions for this study were primarily focused ondetermining how prisoners perceive their correctional educationexperience with emphasis on the effect of this education upon postrelease re-integration/success. The researcher thus searched for asampling strategy that would provide me with participants capable ofproviding insights into the correctional education experience. To fullyunderstand the correctional education setting, and the experiences ofprisoner students in that setting, the sample for this study was tenprisoner students (N=10) and two prison administrators (N=2). Theprisoner students were required to meet the following criteria in orderto be included in the study: * Incarcerated males * At least 50% of the samples have the possibility of parole. * Participants must be currently enrolled in one or more of thepre-college adult education programs offered at the prison. * Any other participants were therefore excluded from the study(with the exception of the assistant warden and the educator). Data collection consisted of an open-ended questionnaire designedto gather the perceptions of prisoner students, as well as fullyunderstand the correctional education process. The interview is bestused when soliciting information that is personal, lengthy, and thatcannot be structured as multiple-choice items. The personal experiencesof prisoner students both prior to and during incarceration were thefocus of the study, and the interview method best captured theparticipant responses. To fully portray the perceptions of prisonerstudents of the correctional education experience, the participant wordshad to be a key part of the data collection process. Additionally, brief observations of classes in session wererecorded using field notes. These field notes enabled the researcher todraw sketches of computer labs where classes took place, to describe theappearance and demeanor The outward physical behavior and appearance of a person.Demeanor is not merely what someone says but the manner in which it is said. Factors that contribute to an individual's demeanor include tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and carriage. of the participants and administrators, todescribe the interaction between researcher and other prison staff, andto document personal reflections upon the interview process. Many of thefield notes were written onto Observation Protocol sheets; the fieldnotes made the collection of extraneous ex��tra��ne��ous?adj.1. Not constituting a vital element or part.2. Inessential or unrelated to the topic or matter at hand; irrelevant. See Synonyms at irrelevant.3. data convenient and effective. Data was collected through pencil and paper pencil and paper - An archaic information storage and transmission device that works by depositing smears of graphite on bleached wood pulp. More recent developments in paper-based technology include improved "write-once" update devices which use tiny rolling heads similar to mouse as well as mechanicaland electronic means. Interviews, observations, and field notes weremanually recorded on paper. Ten prisoner student interviews were audiorecorded as well (and transcribed verbatim ver��ba��tim?adj.Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation.adv. by the researcher). Email wasused to conduct follow-up inquiries with prison administrators. Theresearcher then carefully reviewed each document and labeled the textwith abbreviated themes, or codes. The coded sections were then copiedfrom the primary documents and pasted into thematic and time orderedmatrices. The process of coding, categorizing, and grouping wascontinued until there were no more documents to be analyzed. Ten themesemerged as a result of this analysis. Through the quotes of the prisonerstudents and the written notes of the administrators, three major themessurfaced: success, regret, and rethinking the correctional educationexperience. Findings First, success is a concept that has a distinct meaning andachievement path that goes beyond the acquisition of a job that pays thebills. The prisoner students' perceptions of success influencedtheir study habits, their motivation to attend and persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move"continue theclassroom, and their future educational and employment plans. The secondtheme, regret, is an exploration of how the life choices and experiencesof the prisoner inmates impact the correctional education experience. Athird and final theme, rethinking the correctional education experience,reveals prisoner student perceptions of the previous and current GEDprograms at SSP (1) (Service Switching Point) The local exchange node in an SS7 telephone network. The SSP can be part of the voice switch or in a separate computer connected to it. . Success Many respondents felt that the ability to care for self and lovedones was an indication of success. Other participants felt that"making it" and taking care of one's responsibilities wasa strong indicator of success. When asked to give an example of success,a student named Darren cited Bill Gates (person) Bill Gates - William Henry Gates III, Chief Executive Officer of Microsoft, which he co-founded in 1975 with Paul Allen. In 1994 Gates is a billionaire, worth $9.35b and Microsoft is worth about $27b. : Bill Gates, for example. Bill Gates was a bookworm. All he did was read books when he was small. But as time got on, the books ... he learned so much from those books that, look at him now ... the inventor of Microsoft. I look at him as like, he's successful. Darren attributed Gates' dedication to books to his success.Still other students attributed success to individualism, being contentwith who you are and being motivated to study. Motivation was asignificant sub-theme of success. Participation in the GED program at SSP was a prerequisite toparticipating in any other vocational program at the prison. Therefore,many students in the study were motivated to continue with theirstudies/earn their GED in order to move on to other classes that couldpotentially earn more money for their families. Jarvis, for example,wants to get his GED so he can find a computer class to participate in.Randall wants to be a cook and he knows that getting a GED is the firststep in the process. Some participants were motivated by their family members. Jared hadthe following to say about his son: That's my motivation--my son. I keep a picture of him everywhere I go. That's really my heart racing right there. I really made a vow to ... I'm gonna still be there for him even though I'm in here. Jarvis also hopes to obtain an education for his children andmother: What made me attracted at first ... I was out in the field. So my next move was to get in school and get my GED. Everybody in my family got it but me. I wanted to get that for my mom and me too. Paul, who appeared to be the least motivated student, stated hecame to class because his mother and daughter did not want him sittingaround "doing nothing." Regret A major theme that emerged from this study was regret of priordecisions. After incarceration, each inmate INMATE. One who dwells in a part of another's house, the latter dwelling, at the same time, in the said house. Kitch. 45, b; Com. Dig. Justices of the Peace, B 85; 1 B. & Cr. 578; 8 E. C. L. R. 153; 2 Dowl. & Ry. 743; 8 B. & Cr. 71; 15 E. C. L. R. 154; 2 Man. & Ry. 227; 9 B. & Cr. began to reflect upon hislife and the mistakes he made to end up in prison. Each participantexpressed regret for disappointing their children, their parents, and/or their loved ones. They also regret dropping out of school, engagingin criminal activity, and being confined con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. in prison. Two sub themes thatwere consistent with all of the participants are prior educationalexperiences and prior teachers. The participants regret the behavior andlack of effort they exhibited up until they dropped out of school. Eachparticipant was able to identify at least two teachers who positivelyimpacted their lives for at least a short period of time; they regretthe fact that those teachers' attempts to intervene in their liveswere unsuccessful. Past Experiences A recurring re��cur?intr.v. re��curred, re��cur��ring, re��curs1. To happen, come up, or show up again or repeatedly.2. To return to one's attention or memory.3. To return in thought or discourse. theme in the data was regret of past experiences ordecisions. The decisions made in elementary and middle/high school andexternal influences were most discussed by the participants. Eachparticipant shared at least one regret he had in his pre-incarcerationlife. The participants of this study described school as a place wherethey were either influenced by what they called the wrong crowd, or theysimply acted out and ended up in trouble. Seven of the ten participantsadmit that hanging around with the wrong crowd was the cause of much oftheir trouble in school. Five participants admit that selling drugs ledto their dropping out of school (as well as their incarceration).Michael, for instance, saw no purpose for going to school: I dropped out in the eighth grade after I started making so much money at a young age. I felt I didn't need school anymore ... It went to ... it didn't matter no more at that particular point because I guess I got bigheaded with the money. Several participants described the allure of street life and howthat led to them selling drugs. All of these participants expressedregret for this behavior. Nathan, who lost both of his parents by thetime he was seven years old (his mother died and his father wasincarcerated), was forced to sell drugs by his aunt who struggled tomaintain her extended household. Despite Nathan's self-proclaimedpassion for learning, he had to focus on selling drugs to help his auntpay the bills. Jared's experience with drugs began in the fifth grade andended at age fifteen when he was tried as an adult and sentenced to dohard time at SSP. Thus, drug sales took the focus away from school andplaced the priority on making money for the participants in this study.The choice to sell drugs is one that the participants regret. The prisoner student perceives success as both a set of occupationsand a set of behavioral characteristics. These characteristics includemotivation, which brings the prisoner student into the classroom andkeeps him there. Studying is also a behavior that indicates a desire forsuccess. In order to realize this success, however, the prisoner studentmust also make a plan for the future to bring him to success. When askedabout success, the respondents offered definitions that ranged from thespiritual to the practical. Discussion Success For the participants of this study, success had different meaningsthan the literature suggests. The literature on successful reintegration reintegration/re��in��te��gra��tion/ (-in-te-gra��shun)1. biological integration after a state of disruption.2. restoration of harmonious mental function after disintegration of the personality in mental illness. simply states that a prisoner who is able to gain employment and remainout of prison is successfully reintegrated (Drakeford, 2002; Gehring,1997; Hrabowski & Robbi, 2002; Silva sil��vaalso syl��va ?n. pl. sil��vas or sil��vae1. The trees or forests of a region.2. A written work on the trees or forests of a region. , 1994). In previous studies,successful reintegration is measured using recidivism statistics(Drakeford; Gehring; Hrabowski & Robbi; Silva). The prisonerstudents from the present study indicated that success was moreintrinsic in nature than being able to find a job. To truly besuccessful, the participants felt that they had to be "makingit," doing something that they enjoyed as opposed to having a jobto pay the bills. Only one participant ever mentioned money when talkingabout success. According to the participants, success comes from: * Putting God first, * Taking care of business, * Having no worries, * Working, * Not depending on no one else, * Learning, * Contentment ContentmentAglaospoor peasant said by the Delphic oracle to be happier than the king because he was contented. [Gk. Myth.: Benét, 15] , and * Being able to overcome obstacles. The similarity between the literature and the participants'definitions of success is the fact that a return to incarceration wouldbe an indication of failure. Each one of the participants, at some timeduring the interview, expressed a desire to "get outta here."This sentiment was even shared by those who were not eligible forparole. Alvin, for example, expressed a hope that he would be grantedclemency Leniency or mercy. A power given to a public official, such as a governor or the president, to in some way lower or moderate the harshness of punishment imposed upon a prisoner.Clemency is considered to be an act of grace. or that he would someday some��day?adv.At an indefinite time in the future.Usage Note: The adverbs someday and sometime express future time indefinitely: We'll succeed someday. Come sometime. become eligible for parole through anappeals process. Thus, the prison environment, though much more humaneand "free" than it had been historically, is no place that anyman wants to be. Success, then, is freedom from incarceration.Successful reintegration into society means finding a job and relatingwell within society; for prisoner students, however, this concept ofsuccess is much simpler. This is not to say that finding and keeping ajob are not realities to prisoner students. However, the job is themeans to the end that is a sense of self-worth and belonging to thesociety. These participants realize that success as they define it isonly possible through educational attainment/learning a trade. Thus, theparticipants are motivated to attend classes by their goal of becomingsuccessful men in society. Motivation, a sub-theme of success, is thenext focus. Motivation Pelissier's (2004) study focused on inmate motivation tochange. This form of internal motivation is initiated by the inmate andserves as a driving force for participation in an educational ortreatment program. External motivation, then, is pressure or incentivesfrom an outside force such as the criminal justice system, prisonadministration, or even family members. Pelissier states that since mostcorrectional education classes are voluntary, it is important to possessinternal motivation. According to Pelissier, older males who planned toreturn to a home with children tended to possess internal motivation toparticipate in programs. The participants of the present study were both internally andexternally motivated to change. The majority of the participantsexpressed a desire to impress loved ones (Nathan wanted to impress hisfather; Jarvis wanted to get his GED for his mother) and children. Ofthe participants with children (N=8), all of these men mentioned theirchildren as a motivator. For some, it was the ability to show theirchildren that being in school was a good thing for everybody. Forothers, the motivation came from the thought of being able to get a goodjob and take care of their children. Those participants who were externally motivated were few. Paul,for example, has no ambitions for a career because he is not eligiblefor parole for another 40 years. He is attending classes to satisfy hismother and two children--to show that he is not just sitting arounddoing nothing. According to Pelissier (2004), this type of externalmotivation may not be sufficient to sustain Paul to the completion ofthe GED program. And, since Paul has no real plan for the future, hesees nothing beyond getting up and going to school each day. In the caseof motivation, then, the literature is consistent with the findings ofthis study without fault. The next major theme, Regret, is the focus ofthe following section. Study Time The literature on correctional education does not mention studytime. However, this study found studying to be an indication of desireto change. The majority of the participants studied when they got achance, not as a daily routine. This is due to a lack of instructionalmaterial to bring back to the dormitory, scheduling conflicts, andnoise/distractions in the dormitory. What each participant indicated,however, was that studying could take the form of reading a law book,spiritual material, or even making precise calculations in the hobbyshop. For these prisoner students, the material on the GED test could bereplicated using everyday texts such as newspapers, books, and religiousmaterial. The participants may not be able to take the GED preparationmaterial back to their dormitory, but they are able to make each readingor calculating experience a GED preparation exercise. This indicatesthat the majority of the participants (with the exception of Paul, whodid not appear to be very interested in doing his best in school) weremotivated to study in order to achieve success. If given no materials tostudy, the prisoner students find a way to study with what materialsthey do have at their disposal. The following section addresses futureplans for prisoner student success, the driving force behind motivationand studying. Future Plans The literature on correctional education does not mention thefuture plans/goals of inmates; instead, there is a focus on obtainingcorrectional education to "get a job" in order to stay out ofprison. This study, then, contributes to the literature as it revealsprisoner students' descriptions of what they hope to do uponrelease, and what preparation must take place to realize that goal. Thevoice of the prisoner student here is very different than expected. Thisvoice revealed that, in most cases, much thought has been put into whatwill happen after release. The future plans of the prisoner students areunique in that they match the prisoner students' interests as wellas his desire to make a good living (and stay out of jail as a result).Further detail on this significant contribution to the literaturefollows. The participants were asked to define success and to define theirfuture career and/or educational aspirations. The assumption was thatthe prisoner students would give the names of particularprofessions/trades offered by the prison. This was the case for someparticipants. Nathan, for example, aspires to become a welder. Randallwould like to be a welder and a cook. Alvin aspires to become a cooklike his mother and sister. These careers represent vocational classesoffered at the prison. The participants heard about these classes and/orsaw a fellow inmate working in these professions and then decided topursue that career. Other prisoner students, however, expressed careeraspirations that were a combination of vocations/trades or simply notoffered at SSP. Alvin wants to write raps for others to perform and hehopes to be a poet. These career goals are consistent with his status asa lifer lif��er?n. Slang1. a. A prisoner serving a life sentence.b. One who makes a career in one of the armed forces.2. Informal A right-to-lifer. . Though he will never be released into society, he will be ableto have a career within the micro community that is SSP. Jarvis andJared wish to take computer courses. Jarvis' goal to work withcomputers, as his mother does, may call for a correspondence program(the prison only offers graphic arts graphic arts:see aquatint; drawing; drypoint; engraving; etching; illustration; linoleum block printing; lithography; mezzotint; niello; pastel; poster; silk-screen printing; silhouette; silverpoint; sketch; stencil; woodcut and wood engraving. on the computer). However, Jaredresearched the available programs at SSP and learned that there was agraphic arts program that fit his future plan of designing and detailingcars. Jared also includes the Body & Fender course in his futureplans as a means of accomplishing his goal of becoming an entrepreneur. Other aspiring entrepreneurs--Arnold and Darren--show that futureplans drive the prisoner student's course choices. Arnold, aflooring installer by trade, aspires to take the carpentry course sothat he can establish his own carpentry business upon release. Darrenhopes to establish his own clothing store; he may even want to designsome of the urban wear sold in his store. This goal of entrepreneurshipmay call for correspondence courses in business and design/fashion. Keyto the participants' future plans is the fact that they hope tomove beyond the jobs that are stereotypically ster��e��o��type?n.1. A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image.2. One that is regarded as embodying or conforming to a set image or type.3. held by ex-convicts (i.e.,dishwasher, sanitation worker sanitation workern.A person employed, as by a municipality or private company, to collect and dispose of garbage. , and welder). The type of success that theparticipants aspire to aspire toverb aim for, desire, pursue, hope for, long for, crave, seek out, wish for, dream about, yearn for, hunger for, hanker after, be eager for, set your heart on, set your sights on, be ambitious for will not be accomplished through such menial MENIAL. This term is applied to servants who live under their master's roof Vide stat. 2 H. IV., c. 21. work(in most cases). These men want to own businesses and to climb the ranksof society ... their goals are realistic and attainable throughcorrectional education. Most important is that every participantacknowledged that to achieve their goals, education of some kind is thefirst step. Regret Though the literature does not directly address regret, theparticipants in the study indicated that they regretted their pasteducational experiences. Parkinson and Steurer (2004) find that most prisoners haveencountered some sort of academic difficulty in the past.Mageehon's (2003) study of incarcerated women showed that the prioreducational experiences of the prisoners impacted the type of learnerthey became in the correctional education classroom. If we assume thatall prisoners have experienced some degree of negativity in their pasteducational lives, does this mean that they all experience some form ofregret as part of the change process? Surely, the participants in thisstudy indicated that they wished they had taken advantage of the goodteachers that were in place. They wish they had made wiser decisionsthan selling drugs or participating in gang activity. They regret beingunable to raise their children due to their incarceration. This issimilar to the literature on correctional education and backgroundcharacteristics. The literature (Chappell, 2004; Gunn, 1999; Newman& Beverstock, 1990) identifies prisoners' backgroundcharacteristics that determine motivation and academic ability. Thisbackground information is uniform; it includes prior educational andemployment experiences, family socio-economic status and level ofeducation, and history of substance abuse. The prisoner student bringsthese background characteristics with him into the correctionaleducation classroom, and they are often the cause of his regret. Comingfrom a poor home and being forced to drop out of school and sell drugslike Nathan, for example, is an example of background characteristicsleading to regret. Thus, the findings are consistent with the literaturethat states that prior educational experiences impact the learner. Theprisoner student is motivated to change/attend classes primarily becausehe regrets the fact that he did not graduate or did not pay attention inclass when he could have gone on to college. However, there is more toregret than education. The background characteristics and patterns ofthinking of the prisoner are so intertwined that it is difficult todetermine what prompts a student to want to change. However, we canassume that where regrets are many, the desire to make a change isnatural. Given that the correctional facility is a place of manyregrets, we can assume that the desire to change abounds. Therefore,despite the fact that motivation is a sub-theme of success, themotivation to change and attend classes is also tied into theprisoner's regret of past events that led to his dropping out ofschool and/or incarceration. Additionally, the interactions withteachers that the prison students missed out on are lost; withoutteachers in the correctional education classroom, that experience willnever be replicated in this GED program. Thus, instead of having anopportunity to experience the teacher-to-student interaction now thatthey can appreciate it, the prisoner students are left to learnindependently (with the assistance of inmate tutors). Motivation toapply oneself fully to his studies, then, is a possible result of thismissed opportunity that most participants expressed. The followingsection is a discussion of the GED classroom as perceived by theseprisoner students, so desperate to change. The following section is anexplanation of the changes that were made to the conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see .A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. (Figure 1) as a result of the study findings. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Rethinking the Correctional Education Experience The study findings reveal the participants' desire to possiblyrevise two parts of the correctional education experience: the new GEDprogram and the use of inmate tutors. The following discussion placesthe inmate tutor within the context of the new GED program and arguesfor an evaluation of the program's use as it is. The Inmate Tutor A main focus of the interviews for this study was the inmate tutor.Geraci (2000) mentioned the use of inmate tutors who were first trainedto play this role in the correctional education classroom. This trainingdoes not take place at SSP, however. Rather, to become an inmate tutor,the prisoner student must pass the GED test. The participants had mixedfeelings about the use of inmate tutors in the GED classroom. They feltthat the tutors did not help as much as they were supposed to, and,those who were fully equipped to help others were overwhelmed o��ver��whelm?tr.v. o��ver��whelmed, o��ver��whelm��ing, o��ver��whelms1. To surge over and submerge; engulf: waves overwhelming the rocky shoreline.2. a. by the10:1 ratio in the GED classroom. Researchers have recommended thatcorrectional educators take some set of specialized courses for dealingwith the needs of prisoner students (Moeller, Et. al, 2004; Wright,2001). According to Ms. Drake, the principal of the GED school at SSP,there is no formal curriculum or training for correctional educators.This was also confirmed by the literature (Moeller, et. al, 2004), whichstates that though there are some general understandings aboutcorrectional education, there is no prescribed curriculum. Instead, theresearchers state that the adult education and literacy classes shouldinclude the basic skills (including speaking, listening, and problemsolving problem solvingProcess involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. ), some sort of individualized instruction Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which content, instructional materials, instructional media, and pace of learning are based upon the abilities and interests of each individual learner. , accommodation fordeficient de��fi��cientadj.1. Lacking an essential quality or element.2. Inadequate in amount or degree; insufficient.deficienta state of being in deficit. students, and a school-to-work transition system. The majorityof correctional educators are certified See certification. high school teachers fromneighboring neigh��bor?n.1. One who lives near or next to another.2. A person, place, or thing adjacent to or located near another.3. A fellow human.4. Used as a form of familiar address.v. towns. These teachers have not been, through their secondaryeducation training/education, trained to serve this type of population.Neither are the inmate tutors trained to provide services to theprisoner students. Thus, the use of inmate tutors is something that hasnot been evaluated for effectiveness. Further, the GED program usinginmate tutors in place of teachers is only being used in two otherplaces in the state thus far. So are the inmates who complain about thelack of support from inmate tutors making a valid point? Does theprogram need more time to work well? Do the inmate tutors need moretraining? Further, do correctional educators in general need a trainingprogram tailored just for this population? The research has not fullyexamined this phenomenon, nor has prison administration evaluated theeffectiveness of its use. However, it is evident that some sort oftraining program should be considered to serve the correctionalpopulation. Study Implications This study will benefit three facets of American education:elementary and secondary education, higher education, and correctionaleducation. The prisoner student affects each of these areas. Elementaryand secondary teachers have an opportunity to impact young andimpressionable im��pres��sion��a��ble?adj.1. Readily or easily influenced; suggestible: impressionable young people.2. students at an early age. Though the teacher cannot takethe child out of the home environment, the infusion of caring andencouragement into the classroom, by the teacher, may increase studentengagement and decrease the desire to rebel/misbehave. Higher educationand United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. prisons have been connected since the late 1800s. Thisunion should be strengthened and funding should be increased for highereducation in order to provide more opportunities for prisoners to earncollege credit/degrees while incarcerated. The further the educationalgain, the more likely the prisoner student will leave the prison andsuccessfully re-integrate (Chappell, 2004). Finally, correctionaleducation is able to hear the perceptions of prisoner students pursuingtheir GEDs. This information, along with the future career goals ofthese students, will assist prison administrators and policymakers indeciding which programs to offer to their prisoner students. Thefollowing is a more detailed description of each section. Elementary and Secondary School Teachers Given that the background characteristics and prior experiences ofthe prisoner student influence his attitudes about school as an adult(Mageehon, 2003), the information in this study may benefit teachers inelementary and secondary schools. The participants of both the pilotstudy (N=5) and the current study (N=10) found that they were mostengaged in school when they had teachers who treated them fairly, withrespect, and who encouraged them to do good things. Teachers who putforth effort beyond the call of duty (stopping by a student's home,taking time to pull a child aside in or out of school, for example) weremost fondly remembered. These exemplary teachers were not isolated toeither elementary or secondary school. Prisoner student responsesindicate that teachers who care and encourage exist from kindergarten totwelfth grade. So how can these teachers influence prisonerreintegration into society? There are two implications for K-12teachers: the prevention of future crime commission through reaching outto at-risk students, and accommodating the needy child of anincarcerated parent. As a teacher, the researcher is able to identify behaviors thatindicate a child's disposition toward criminal activity. Thisstudent may resist authority, ask to leave class often, and slouch slouch?v. slouched, slouch��ing, slouch��esv.intr.1. To sit, stand, or walk with an awkward, drooping, excessively relaxed posture.2. To droop or hang carelessly, as a hat.v. inhis desk (or go to sleep in class). He may also live with a singleparent or custodial parents who do not offer supervision and support forlearning. The student whose test scores and participation are low, whoseattendance is poor--these factors send up a red flag that the childneeds intervention. Many schools have begun using positive behaviorprograms to redirect re��di��rect?tr.v. re��di��rect��ed, re��di��rect��ing, re��di��rectsTo change the direction or course of.n.A redirect examination.re the troubled student. Those who cannot be reachedthrough these means are often sent to juvenile detention centers; thisis quite often the precursor to incarceration. What if teachers found a way, while in class and on the schoolgrounds, to reach out to students they feel are at risk? Though eachprisoner student was able to name at least two teachers who positivelyimpacted their lives, is this enough for a 12-year school career? Is itthat these children slip through the cracks unnoticed, or do weeducators witness a child's downfall and refuse to get involvedbecause it is too much trouble or, worse yet, we just don't likethe child's attitude? Most important to teachers is the need torecognize these undesirable behaviors as a cry for help--and to act onthem. So what about the student who has been in a fifth period Historyclass for twelve weeks with a teacher who does not pay attention to hissleeping in class because 'at least he's not disturbinganyone'? Other than the school counselor A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in schools, and have historically been referred to as "guidance counselors" or "educational counselors," although "Professional School Counselor" is now the preferred term. , does anyone pull hiscumulative folder and examine his family history? Has anyone called hometo find out whether there is a medical condition or tragedy thatoccurred in the family that may have prompted this behavior? Quiteoften, when teachers do get to know their students' histories, theyfind an absent parent due to death or incarceration. However, just asNathan described, many times the teachers are not aware of the personaltragedies of their students. Instead, the teacher dismisses any thoughtof helping the disruptive or antisocial antisocial/an��ti��so��cial/ (-so��sh'l)1. denoting behavior that violates the rights of others, societal mores, or the law.2. denoting the specific personality traits seen in antisocial personality disorder. and nonconformist child in orderto save the children who came to school to learn. This ideology has oneflaw--the disruptive child is still a child. And every child, regardlessof how disruptive they may appear to be, needs and craves the attentionand direction of adults he looks up to. The literature shows that the child of an incarcerated parentexhibits these behaviors, and that they often do not have a stable homelife (Johnson & Waldfogel, 2004; Nurse, 2004). Perhaps it thenbecomes the teacher's responsibility to nurture NURTURE. The act of taking care of children and educating them: the right to the nurture of children generally belongs to the father till the child shall arrive at the age of fourteen years, and not longer. Till then, he is guardian by nurture. Co. Litt. 38 b. and providestructure for that child for at least the seven hours a day when theyare at school. Educators must have a different outlook on thatapparently needy student who causes teachers to roll their eyes as hestrolls carelessly down the hall. To be truly effective as a teacher,educators must extend their reach beyond the students who comply withthe rules and actually participate. On his first day as anadministrator, the new principal at one high school asked that eachteacher try to impact at least two students per day. Why not extend thatpositively to the students who need it most? Higher Education The field of higher education has been participating incorrectional education since the late 1800s (Glaser, 1995; Warburton,1993). Typically, the community college or university offered coursesthrough correspondence. Later, professors began to travel to the prisonto hold class. Today, the most recent innovation in the prison--highereducation connection is distance learning. The goal for all of thesemethods is to provide a college education for incarcerated men andwomen. Given the need for job security to successfully re-integrate intosociety (Hrabowski & Robbi, 2002), more course offerings areessential to this successful re-integration. Jared and Jarvis expresseda desire to go into computer-related career after release. The programofferings at SSP, however, are limited in that graphic arts is the onlyprogram in the computer field. Through correspondence and/or distancelearning, the career options and/or opportunities are greater,increasing the likelihood that prisoner students will have anopportunity to pursue a career that they enjoy and that is profitable.Thus, this study benefits higher education as it provides a descriptionof available programs and establishes a need for community college anduniversity sponsored degree programs, specifically in the medical andcomputer technology fields. If such programs were available, prisonerstudents like Jared, Jarvis, and Ralph would have an opportunity torealize their goals prior to release and get off to a great start at anew crime-free life. Perhaps, if more programs/courses are offeredthrough the community colleges and universities, more federal and statefunding would be allotted al��lot?tr.v. al��lot��ted, al��lot��ting, al��lots1. To parcel out; distribute or apportion: allotting land to homesteaders; allot blame.2. to higher education institutions to run/staffthese programs. The following is a discussion of the implications forthe field of corrections. Correctional Education Research shows an increase in funding sources for U.S. prisons andcorrectional education (Wilkinson & Rhine, 2005). The amount offunding has not increased significantly, however. Given the budget cutsthat occurred as a result of the recent hurricanes, SSP was faced withlaying off its educators and switching to a program using only inmatetutors. With a new computer- and tutor-based program, teachers wouldease the transition for the prisoner students. Ms. Drake expressedregret over the teachers (N=3) who were laid off as a result of thebudget cuts following the hurricanes. She would rehire Re`hire´v. t. 1. To hire again. those teachers(or other certified teachers) if the funding became available.Therefore, funding adequate enough to hire certified teachers to overseethe educational programs is needed at this time. The participants of this study indicated a desire to have teachersinstead of inmate tutors because of the perceived lack ofprofessionalism of the tutor and the tutor's inability toeffectively assist the GED students. Geraci's (2000) studyindicates that inmate tutors are those who have completed the GEDprogram, passed the GED test, and completed a tutor training program.This type of training is necessary for inmate tutors to be able toassist the unique prisoner student population. This is also true forteachers of middle and high school who come to the prison to teach. Justas these teachers had to learn pedagogy, and just how higher educationinstructors learn andragogy, correctional educators from everybackground should be given, at minimum, a seminar on teaching theprisoner student. The training would better prepare inmate tutors andcertified teachers from outside the prison for dealing with learnerswith diverse needs, substance abuse problems and mental disorders mental disorders:see bipolar disorder; paranoia; psychiatry; psychosis; schizophrenia. , andlearning disabilities. Additionally, a course or seminar on teachingprisoner students would equip teachers and tutors with the tools neededto adapt to changing inmate schedules, transfers in and out of class,and new arrivals to the class. The GED program is individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. , buthaving a well-trained teacher and/or inmate tutor in the classroom wouldmake it easier to administer one-on-one time for academically needystudents. Thus, correctional education could benefit from the results ofthis study by recognizing the need for training for inmate tutors andteachers. This training, and possibly a handbook for one the jobreference, would enhance the quality of correctional instruction. It istherefore important to correctional education to find a way to ensurethat this limited resource--the inmate tutor, is being used properly andin the best capacity. Future Research The prisoner students who were interviewed for the pilot study(N=5) and the current study (N=10) expressed gratitude for being askedto share their experiences and perceptions. Alvin, for example, states,"Nobody comes to talk to the population." By population, hemeant those prisoners housed in the general population. Alvin felt thatif attention was given to correctional education, that attention wasgeared toward the Bible college A Bible college is an institution of higher education in which the course of study specializes in biblical studies. This curriculum differs from the focus on academic programs of Christian liberal arts colleges or research universities, which may include, but are not limited to, students. It is therefore thisresearcher's opinion that future research should focus oninterviewing more prisoner students about their correctional educationexperience. Research involving prisoner students could take many forms. Thisstudy actually could have been broken up into a series of more focusedstudies to provide more in-depth data. First, the post educational andemployment experiences could be a study within itself. By interviewingprisoner students about these experiences, the researcher could possiblydetermine characteristics of school-age children that predict possibleincarceration. Just as teachers of K-12 are able to identify the need tonurture and encourage from the information in this study, a studyfocusing solely on past experiences would provide teachers with astarting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting pointterminus a quocommencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the for identifying at-risk behaviors from a unique source--aformer at-risk student/child. The study of the inmate tutor would also provide valuableinformation for correctional education, since the program is a new oneand there are only two prisons using the program at the time. Anevaluative study would enhance the ability of correctionaladministrators to utilize inmate tutors in place of certified educators.Perhaps inmate tutors themselves may have concerns that they wish toshare that could then be addressed by administrations as a means ofprogram improvement. The use of a training seminar for inmate tutors(focusing on adult learning theories and inter-personal relations) couldbe a topic of discussion in a focus group of correctional educatorsand/or administrators. In all, an examination of the inmate tutor wouldbenefit this newly implemented GED program. Conclusion This study was an attempt to discover the correctional educationexperience from the perspective of the prisoner student. Throughone-on-one interviews with ten (N=10) males at Southern StatePenitentiary penitentiary:see prison. , the researcher was able to shed light on what it means toattend classes in prison. The findings indicate that the prisonerstudent is filled with regret over past educational experiences and lifechoices. This regret is then a motivator for change--an impetus forattending class and "making something out of myself." Themotivation to attend and persist in class also comes from both internal(friends, family, self) and external (judges, parole boards, prisonadministrators) sources, and this motivation may or may not result inpersistence in a GED course. The field of correctional education couldbenefit from this study by examining the GED program and its use ofinmate tutors. Providing a training course for correctional educatorscould enhance the quality of instruction of both certified teachers andinmate tutors. The field of elementary and secondary education couldbenefit society at large by reaching out to at-risk students before theyhave a chance to be incarcerated. Finally, the field of higher educationcould benefit from this study's findings by finding ways to provideadditional program offerings for the prisoner students. Perhaps, byintroducing new courses and programs of study, the federal and stategovernments would find a way to provide more funds for the field ofcorrectional education. In all, the study changed this researcher'sperception of the prisoner student. Rather than focusing on the crimeand the hardened criminal who was incarcerated, it is important toremember the person behind the prison identification number--the man whomerely wants to "make it." References (1995). A stay of execution for prisoner education? The Journal ofBlacks in Higher Education, 8: 27. Butterfield, F. (2002). Black men in jail exceed collegians. TheTimes Picayune Picayune(pĭkəyn`), city (1990 pop. 10,633), Pearl River co., S Miss., near the Pearl River and the La. line; inc. 1904. , August 28, A-12. Chappell, C.A. (2002). 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Albany, NY: State University of New York Press The State University of New York Press (or SUNY Press), founded in 1966, is a university press that is part of State University of New York system. External linkState University of New York Press . Gordon, H. & Weldon, B. (2003). The impact of career andtechnical education programs on adult offenders: learning behind bars.The Journal of Correctional Education, 54(4), 200-209. Gunn, P. (1999). Learner and instructor needs in a correctionalsetting. The Journal of Correctional Education, 50(3), 74-82. Hrabowski, F. & Robbi, J. (2002). The benefits of correctionaleducation. The Journal of Correctional Education, 53(3), 96-100. Johnson, E. & Waldfogel, J. (2004). Children of incarceratedparents: Multiple risks and children's living arrangements. InWestern, B., Lopoo, L. & McLanahan, S. (Eds.), Imprisoning America:The social effects of mass incarceration (pp. 97-134). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : RussellSage Russell Sage (4 August 1816 - 22 July 1906) was a financier and politician from New York.Sage was born at Verona in Oneida County, New York. He received a public school education and worked as a farm hand until he was 15, when he became an errand boy in a grocery conducted Foundation. Linton, J. (2004). U.S. department of education update. The Journalof Correctional Education, 55(4), 274-276. Mageehon, A. (2003). Incarcerated women's educationalexperiences. The Journal of Correctional Education, 54(4), 191-199. Moeller, M., Day, S. & Rivera, B. (2004). How is educationperceived on the inside?: A preliminary study of adult males in acorrectional setting. The Journal of Correctional Education, (55)1,40-59. 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Higher Education in Prison: A Contradiction in Terms Noun 1. contradiction in terms - (logic) a statement that is necessarily false; "the statement `he is brave and he is not brave' is a contradiction"contradictionlogic - the branch of philosophy that analyzes inference ?Phoenix: Oryx oryx(ôr`ĭks), name for several small, horselike antelopes, genus Oryx, found in deserts and arid scrublands of Africa and Arabia. They feed on grasses and scrub and can go without water for long periods. Press, 17-31. Slater, R.B. (1994-1995). Locked in but locked out: death sentencefor the higher education of black prison inmates? The Journal of Blacksin Higher Education, No.6, 101-103. Turnbull, J., Lin, L. & Bajeva, A. (1997). Enhancing studentachievement and management productivity in prison academic programs: aninformation systems approach. The Journal of Correctional Education,48(3), 113-122. Warburton, L. (1993). Prisons. San Diego San Diego(săn dēā`gō), city (1990 pop. 1,110,549), seat of San Diego co., S Calif., on San Diego Bay; inc. 1850. San Diego includes the unincorporated communities of La Jolla and Spring Valley. Coronado is across the bay. , CA: Lucient Books. Wilkinson, R. & Rhine, E. (2005). Confronting recidivism:Inmate reentry reentryn. taking back possession and going into real property which one owns, particularly when a tenant has failed to pay rent or has abandoned the property, or possession has been restored to the owner by judgment in an unlawful detainer lawsuit. and the second chance act 2005. Corrections Today, 54-57. Wright, M. (2001). Pell grants, politics and the penitentiary:Connections between the development of U.S. higher education andprisoner post--secondary programs. The Journal of CorrectionalEducation, 52(1), 11-16. Renee Smiling Hall, Ph.D. Jim Killacky, Ed.D RENEE SMILING HALL is a teacher of English and Journalism at thePatrick F. Taylor Patrick F. Taylor (1937-2004) was an American businessman, who was founder and CEO of the independent oil company Taylor Energy.Taylor graduated from Louisiana State University with a degree in petroleum engineering. After working for independent oilman John W. Mecom, Sr. Science & Technology School in Jefferson,Louisiana Jefferson is a census-designated place and unincorporated community in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, on the East Bank of the Mississippi River. Jefferson is part of the Greater New Orleans Metropolitan area. The population was 11,843 at the 2000 census. and an instructor of Research Methods and Written Analysis atITT Technical Institute ITT Technical Institute (often shortened to ITT Tech) is a private, for-profit, technical institute with over 85 campuses in over 30 states of the United States. It was founded in 1946 as Educational Services, Inc. and has been headquartered in Carmel, Indiana, since 1969. in St. Rose, Louisiana. JIM KILLACKY is an associate professor in the department ofEducational Leadership, Counseling, and Foundatiions at the Universityof New Orleans HistoryUNO was founded in 1958 as the New Orleans branch of Louisiana State University, originally as "Louisiana State University in New Orleans" or "LSUNO", but became more independent and changed the name to "University of New Orleans" in 1974. .