Contractual or responsive accountability? Neo-centralist `self-management' or systemic subsidiarity! Tasmanian parents' and other stakeholders' policy preferences.

Contractual or responsive accountability? Neo-centralist `self-management' or systemic subsidiarity! Tasmanian parents' and other stakeholders' policy preferences. WHEN state governments decentralised Adj. 1. decentralised - withdrawn from a center or place of concentration; especially having power or function dispersed from a central to local authorities; "a decentralized school administration"decentralized many administrativeresponsibilities administrative responsibilityAny task or duty related to managing an institution; non-Pt management-related responsibilities of physicians include chart review, participation in the tumor board or tissue committee, etc. Cf Clinical responsibility. to schools in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it wasassumed that they would develop better capacities to manage, develop andgovern themselves. In general, such decentralisation n. 1. same as decentralization.Noun 1. decentralisation - the spread of power away from the center to local branches or governmentsdecentralizationspreading, spread - act of extending over a wider scope or expanse of space or time attempted toreplace bureaucracies with corporate management, focus school evaluationonto the auditing of performance indicators, cut ex-school supportstructures in favour of locally contracted expertise, and displace dis��place?tr.v. dis��placed, dis��plac��ing, dis��plac��es1. To move or shift from the usual place or position, especially to force to leave a homeland: hierarchy with collegial col��le��gi��al?adj.1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . networks. The principle of publicaccountability in public education was redefined as a local obligationto be discharged through managerial, market and political mechanisms. The research reported here shows that Tasmanian TasmanianAny member of a now-extinct population of Tasmania. An isolate population of Australian Aboriginals who entered Tasmania 25,000–40,000 years ago, they were cut off from the mainland when a general rise in the sea level flooded the Bass Strait about 10,000 parents actuallyprefer a far more educative ed��u��ca��tive?adj.Educational.Adj. 1. educative - resulting in education; "an educative experience"instructive, informative - serving to instruct or enlighten or inform and communitarian com��mu��ni��tar��i��an?n.A member or supporter of a small cooperative or a collectivist community.com��mu approach toaccountability, and that this view is broadly shared with other keystakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. : teachers, principals and state government officials. Theempirical findings reported contradict con��tra��dict?v. con��tra��dict��ed, con��tra��dict��ing, con��tra��dictsv.tr.1. To assert or express the opposite of (a statement).2. To deny the statement of. See Synonyms at deny. orthodox orthodox,adj in medical practice, conventional, relating to currently accepted majority standards. See also medicine, conventional; hypothesis; and model, medical. structures, practicesand theory and have substantial implications for policy making. Introduction Most public schools in Australia Australia(ôstrāl`yə), smallest continent, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. With the island state of Tasmania to the south, the continent makes up the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary state (2005 est. pop. exhibit the characteristics of aself-managing school, not unlike `school-based management' (SBM SBM - Solution Based Modelling ) inthe United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. and `local management of schools' (LMS (Learning Management System) An information system that administers instructor-led and e-learning courses and keeps track of student progress. Used internally by large enterprises for their employees, an LMS can be used to monitor the effectiveness of the ) inEngland and Wales England and Wales are both constituent countries of the United Kingdom, that together share a single legal system: English law. Legislatively, England and Wales are treated as a single unit (see State (law)) for the conflict of laws. . The introduction of this approach in Australia hasbeen shown (Beare, 1995) to be due to the confluence confluence/con��flu��ence/ (kon��floo-ins)1. a running together; a meeting of streams.con��fluent2. in embryology, the flowing of cells, a component process of gastrulation. of economic,political and ideological forces in the late 1980s. The originalformulation formulation/for��mu��la��tion/ (for?mu-la��shun) the act or product of formulating.American Law Institute Formulation of the `self-managing school' (Caldwell Caldwell,city (1990 pop. 18,400), seat of Canyon co., SW Idaho, on the Boise River; inc. 1890. On the site of an Oregon Trail camping ground, the city is a major processing and distribution center for an agricultural and livestock area. & Spinks Spinks is a surname, and may refer to Cory Spinks John Spinks Leon Spinks Michael Spinks Scipio Spinks William Spinks See alsoSpink This page or section lists people with the surname Spinks. ,1988) was derived from early US school effectiveness literature and onecase study, and then modified in the light of internationalconsultancies (Caldwell & Spinks, 1992, p. viii) and furtherreflection (Beare, Caldwell, & Millikan, 1989). Australian Australianpertaining to or originating in Australia.Australian bat lyssavirus diseasesee Australian bat lyssavirus disease.Australian cattle doga medium-sized, compact working dog used for control of cattle. research into school `self-management' has drawnattention to the dangers of an uncritical faith in corporatemanagerialism In the field of administration, observers can characterise as managerialism those systems where they perceive a preponderance or excess of managerial techniques, solutions and personnel. , such as the displacement displacement,in psychology: see defense mechanism. Same as offset. See base/displacement. of educational metavalues likequality pedagogy, democracy and social equity (Angus Angus(ăng`gəs), council area (1993 est. pop. 111,020), 842 sq mi (2,181 sq km), and former county, NE Scotland. Under the Local Government Act of 1973, the county of Angus became part of the Tayside region in 1975. 1993; Chapman CHAPMAN. One whose business is to buy and sell goods or other things. 2 Bl. Com. 476. ,1990; Chapman & Dunstan Dun��stan? , Saint 924-988.English prelate. As bishop of Winchester (957) and archbishop of Canterbury (959-978) he attempted to integrate the Danes and the English as a nation. , 1991). Wohlstetter and Odden (1992) haveshown that the concept of SBM has become pervasive pervasive,adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. in the US althoughthere are many forms in existence without clear goals or systematicaccountability structures. They also found little real delegation ofauthority The action by which a commander assigns part of his or her authority commensurate with the assigned task to a subordinate commander. While ultimate responsibility cannot be relinquished, delegation of authority carries with it the imposition of a measure of responsibility. to schools, that the primary focus of SBM was on teachermorale and satisfaction, and that the links between SBM and studentlearning remained obscure. More recent research (Wohlstetter, Wenning,& Briggs Briggs? , Henry 1561-1630.English mathematician who devised the decimal-based system of logarithms and invented the modern method of long division. , 1995) has shown that none of the `school charter'laws passed in eleven states by the end of 1994 to tightenaccountabilities linked district support, school improvement andclassroom development. One possible interpretation is that SBM is apolicy myth that defines educators as more solely accountable forstudent learning while ingratiating in��gra��ti��at��ing?adj.1. Pleasing; agreeable: "Reading requires an effort.... Print is not as ingratiating as television"Robert MacNeil.2. neo-centralism in policy making andin the financial management of contraction contraction, in physicscontraction,in physics: see expansion.contraction, in grammarcontraction,in writing: see abbreviation. contraction - reduction . Similarly, in the United Kingdom, LMS has transformed the way thatschools are managed and given expression to a New Right myth of greatereducational choice, essentially by imposing new political, managerialand market mechanisms (Levacic, 1995). An array of technical andphilosophical problems have been encountered (Gray & Wilcox Wilcox may refer to: Place names in the United StatesWilcox, Nebraska Wilcox County, Alabama Wilcox County, Georgia Wilcox Township, Michigan PeopleSee Wilcox (surname) OtherAdrian C. , 1995).Yet, despite considerable pressure from the centre, schools are usingtheir self governing gov��ern?v. gov��erned, gov��ern��ing, gov��ernsv.tr.1. To make and administer the public policy and affairs of; exercise sovereign authority in.2. powers to vote repeatedly against opting out ofLocal Education Authority (LEA LEA LeagueLEA Local Education Authority (UK)LEA Local Education AgencyLEA Langues ��trang��res Appliqu��es (France)LEA Law Enforcement AgencyLEA Load Effective Address ) control. Many school communities arerefusing to set aside co-operative networks in LEAs in favour ofcompetition. Governors are supporting educators more and more, even tothe extent of defying the national government with deficit budgets. Many schools are developing more educative evaluation anddevelopment strategies to supplement the formal and blunt blunt(blunt) having a thick or dull edge or point; not sharp. accountabilitymechanisms of the Office for Standards in Education's schoolinspections and the School Curriculum and Assessments Authority'sstandard student assessment tasks (Vann For people named Vann, see Vann (surname)The Vann (Punjabi:ون or ਵਣ) or, jar in Sindhi language, Jāl or Peelu in Hindi language (Salvadora oleoides , 1995). Accumulating evidence(Earley For the parsing algorithm, see Earley parser.Earley is a town in Berkshire, England with a population of around 30,000 people. It lies to the east of the large town of Reading, and runs directly into it. It is part of the Wokingham district. 1994; Keys & Fernandes Fernandes is a common surname in the Portuguese language, namely in Portugal, Mexico, and Brazil. It was originally a patronymic, meaning son of Fernando (English: Ferdinand). Its Spanish equivalents are Fern��ndez and Hern��ndez. , 1990; Levacic, 1995) indicates thatschool governing bodies Noun 1. governing body - the persons (or committees or departments etc.) who make up a body for the purpose of administering something; "he claims that the present administration is corrupt"; "the governance of an association is responsible to its members"; "he are providing supportive and advisory services advisory servicesadvisory services provided to the public, in their capacity as owners and managers of animals, are an important part of veterinary science. They may be provided by government bureaux, by commercial companies who deal in pharmaceuticals or animals or animal while moving steadily towards the adoption of their legislated role oflocal public accountability. It can therefore be speculated that the New Right'sneo-centralist attempt in England and Wales to create a politics ofchoice and local contractual accountability is being challenged by apolitics of subsidiarity subsidiarityNounthe principle of taking political decisions at the lowest practical levelNoun 1. subsidiarity - secondary importancesubordinateness that values responsive accountability. Some definitions are warranted here. When the word`accountability' first appeared in a British government document oneducation, it referred to the evaluation of learning and schools, andLEAs remedying poor performance (Department of Education and Service,1977): Growing recognition of the need for schools to demonstrate their accountability to the society which they serve requires a coherent and soundly based means of assessment for the educational system as a whole, for schools, and for individual pupils ... [and] ... it is an essential facet of ... [LEAs'] ... accountability for educational standards that they must be able to identify schools which consistently perform poorly, so that appropriate remedial action can be taken. Such assessment will take account of examination and test results, but will also depend heavily on detailed knowledge of the circumstances of the schools by the authorities' officers, their inspectors and advisers, and such self assessment as may be undertaken by the schools. (pp.16-17) The Taylor report The Taylor Report is a document, whose development was overseen by Lord Taylor of Gosforth, concerning the aftermath and causes of the Hillsborough disaster in 1989. An interim report was published in August 1989, and the final report was published in January 1990. (Department of Education and Science Department of Education and Science refers to two current and former government departments. For the Irish government department, see Department of Education and Science (Ireland). For the former UK government department, see Department for Education and Skills. , WelshOffice See Also Council of WalesThe Welsh Office (Swyddfa Gymreig) was a department in the Government of the United Kingdom with responsibilities for Wales. , 1977).proposed three broad reform strategies: testing andassessment, inspections, and parental involvement. Professionaleducators made it clear that they preferred forms of self-evaluation andaccountability processes that recreated trust in partnerships (EastSussex East Sussex,county (1991 pop. 670,600), 693 sq mi (1,795 sq km), extreme SE England. It comprises seven administrative districts: Brighton, Eastbourne, Hastings, Hove, Lewes, Rother, and Wealden. The county, the seat of which is Lewes, borders the English Channel. Accountability Project, 1980; Nuttall Nuttall may refer to: Amy Nuttall (b. 1982), British actress Anthony Nuttall (1937 - 2007), English literary critic Blackman-Nuttall window Carrie Nuttall, photographer Charles Nuttall (1872-1934), Australian artist Enos Nuttall (1842 - 1916), Clergyman. , 1981). Becher Becher(bē`kər), in the Bible.1 Son of Benjamin. In First Chronicles "his first-born" should perhaps be read "Becher"; cf. Bocheru. See Bichri.2 Son of Ephraim. His descendants are called Bachrites. and Eraut(1977), for example, argued that a morally accountable educator is: accountable to all those who have placed one in a position of trust, and that accountability should be expressed in terms intended to secure the continued renewal of that trust. In practice, the broader definition may well be the more appropriate, because moves to strengthen formal accountability gain support from those who have simply ceased to trust. (p.11) As the `great debate' rolled on, it gradually became accepted(Becher, 1979) that the five forms of accountability set out in Table 1were intimately related.Table 1 Becher's forms of accountability in educationForms DefinitionsMoral Answerability to clientsProfessional Responsibility to self and colleaguesContractual Accounting in terms of an employment contractPolitical Accounting to political mastersPublic Accounting publicly in terms of the public interest A persistent challenge is that specifying accountabilityrelationships presumes that there is clarity and agreement over aims andmethods. Paradoxically par��a��dox?n.1. A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true: the paradox that standing is more tiring than walking.2. , the ends and means of public education arecontested, and in a democracy, remain contestable. Accountability modelsand frameworks must, therefore, reflect a range of theories incompetition about purposes and processes. Kogan Kogan (Russian: Коган) is a popular Russian version of Jewish surname Cohen: Artur Kogan (b. 1974), an Israeli chess master Boris Kogan (1940 – 1993), a Russian-American chess master (1986) provided aseminal seminal/sem��i��nal/ (sem��i-n'l) pertaining to semen or to a seed. sem��i��naladj.Of, relating to, containing, or conveying semen or seed. analysis of the plethora plethora/pleth��o��ra/ (pleth��ah-rah)1. an excess of blood.2. by extension, a red florid complexion.pletho��ricpleth��o��ran.1. of frameworks in use, and the complexreasons as to why they co-existed (p.16) -- vital points often lost onthose who saw them as exclusive options. He identified three majormodels (Table 2). Each model has its own way of determining appropriatepartners for accountability relationships, the most appropriateprocesses that should be used by a partner to exercise control overanother, and the appropriate source and nature of criteria that shouldbe used to make judgements. The models have discrete theories of stateand knowledge that see powers, responsibilities, rights,professionalism professionalismthe upholding by individuals of the principles, laws, ethics and conventions of their profession. , and entitlements differently.Table 2 Kogan's three models of accountability in educationDimensions Public or suite controlPurposes of Given and legitimised byaccountability democratic processesAppropriate Bureaucratic structuresaccountability and lines of authorityProcesses Hierarchical and one-way relationships and top- down external reviewsSource of SuperordinatescriteriaDimensions Professional controlPurposes of Arbitrary, therefore to beaccountability determined by expertsAppropriate Team-based structures andaccountability expertise-based authorityProcesses Interactive relationships, internal and external reviewsSource of Professional peerscriteriaDimensions Consumerist controlPurposes of Arbitrary, therefore toaccountability be determined by clientsAppropriate Temporary functionalaccountability structures; contractedProcesses partnerships; political relationships and external reviewsSource of Elected representativescriteria and the marketTable 3 Halstead's six models of accountability in educationDominant Contractual accountabilitystakeholderEmployer Central Control Model Teachers (employees) contracted to provide measurable learning, Testing and inspection considered appropriate methods. Can have low internal ownership or formative dynamics,Professional Self Accounting Model Teachers (autonomous professionals) self monitor learning and teaching using internal and subjective methods. Can have low external credibility,Consumer Consumerist Model Teachers (providers) exposed to market and political mechanisms such as league tables, parental choice and LMS. Can intensify work and inequalities.Dominant Responsive accountabilitystakeholderEmployer Chain of Responsibility Model Decision makers at each level in a hierarchy also responsive to legitimate stakeholders at their level. Can stimulate growth of bureaucracy, power struggles and structural ambiguities.Professional Professional Model Contractual matters delegated to the governors. Matters of responsiveness delegated to the head and teachers. Can lead to localism and `provider capture'.Consumer Partnership Model Legitimate stakeholders pool options, interact critically, decide, plan and evaluate. Can lack external legitimacy and be undermined by local politics. Halstead For the village in Kent, see . (1994, pp.149-162) built on Kogan's model.`Contractual accountability' refers to the answerability ofeducators. `Responsive accountability' is about taking into accountthe requirements of all interested parties when making educationalpolicy and operational decisions. Relating this distinction to varyingpowers in the relationship between employers, professionals andconsumers produces six models of accountability. Halstead's framework aggregates diverse positions. Thecontractual models celebrate controlling the causal causal/cau��sal/ (kaw��z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causalrelating to or emanating from cause. relationship betweenteaching and learning outcomes, a relationship that is deemed to beknown or ultimately knowable. The responsive models honour Honour or honor (see spelling differences), is the evaluation of a person’s trustworthiness and social status based on that individual's espousals and actions. stakeholder stakeholdern. a person having in his/her possession (holding) money or property in which he/she has no interest, right or title, awaiting the outcome of a dispute between two or more claimants to the money or property. constructivism constructivism,Russian art movement founded c.1913 by Vladimir Tatlin, related to the movement known as suprematism. After 1916 the brothers Naum Gabo and Antoine Pevsner gave new impetus to Tatlin's art of purely abstract (although politically intended) which favours consensus over consequences and principlesas the basis for the moral justification of policy claims.Simultaneously the models imply very different change strategies. TheCentral Control Model stresses managerialism. The Self Accounting Modelrecommends absolute professional autonomy professional autonomy,n the right and privilege provided by a governmental entity to a class of professionals, and to each qualified licensed caregiver within that profession, to provide services independent of supervision. . The Consumer Model trusts inthe market. The Chain of Responsibility Model puts its faith indistributive justice DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. That virtue, whose object it is to distribute rewards and punishments to every one according to his merits or demerits. Tr. of Eq. 3; Lepage, El. du Dr. ch. 1, art. 3, Sec. 2 1 Toull. n. 7, note. See Justice. while the Professional Model has confidence in `thelearning community'. The Partnership Model values democraticparticipation. Each of these assumptions and claims is contestable. It was speculated above that a politics of subsidiarity valuesresponsive accountability. To explain, subsidiarity is an organisationalprinciple that holds that `decisions should be made at the lowestpossible level' (Casey Casey is an Irish surname, and may refer to Al Casey Al Casey (rockabilly) Albert Casey Albert Vincent Casey Anne Casey Ben Casey Bernie Casey Bill Casey Bob Casey, Jr., U.S. Senator (D-PA), son of late Pennsylvania Gov. Robert P. Casey. , 1993, p. 173). The rationale rationale (rash´nal´),n the fundamental reasons used as the basis for a decision or action. for thisprinciple has been traced (McBrien, 1980): The principle of subsidiarity was first formally articulated by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical Quadrogessimo Anno (1931): `It is a fundamental principle of social philosophy, fixed and unchangeable, that one should not withdraw from individuals and commit to the community what they can accomplish by their own enterprise and industry. So, too, it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and a disturbance of right order, to transfer to a larger and higher collectivity functions which can be performed and provided by lesser and subordinate bodies'. [cited by John XXII's Mater et Magistera, 1961, para 53 (p.1044)] Today the subsidiarity principle is taken to imply that `anycollectivity, before it usurps the power vested vestedadj. referring to having an absolute right or title, when previously the holder of the right or title only had an expectation. Examples: after 20 years of employment Larry Loyal's pension rights are now vested. (See: vest, vested remainder) in the local body, mustshow cause why it can discharge that function better, more efficiently,more humanely hu��mane?adj.1. Characterized by kindness, mercy, or compassion: a humane judge.2. Marked by an emphasis on humanistic values and concerns: a humane education. , more skilfully' (Beare, 1995, p. 147). The principleof subsidiarity is at odds with the neo-centralism driving standardised Adj. 1. standardised - brought into conformity with a standard; "standardized education"standardizedstandard - conforming to or constituting a standard of measurement or value; or of the usual or regularized or accepted kind; "windows of standard width"; forms of school self-management Self-management means different things in different fields: In business, education, and psychology, self-management refers to methods, skills, and strategies by which individuals can effectively direct their own activities toward the achievement of objectives, and includes , SBM and LMS. It has two corollary corollary:see theorem. principles: pluriformity and complimentarity. Pluriformity is theencouragement, development and celebration of diverse problem-solving problem-solvingn → resoluci��n f de problemas;problem-solving skills → t��cnicas de resoluci��n de problemasproblem-solvingn → structures. Complimentarity values collegiality col��le��gi��al��i��ty?n.1. Shared power and authority vested among colleagues.2. Roman Catholic Church The doctrine that bishops collectively share collegiate power. and co-operative actionbetween diverse member units for the greater common good. To illustrate,the South Australian Commission for Catholic Schools (1987) recognisedthat it: in its role of overall policy formulation, shall be sensitive to the special character of those schools founded and directed by a Religious Institute ... Conscious of the special charisma of each Religious Institute as a gift to the Church, the Commission shall endeavour to foster that special expression of the elements of Catholic education which flows from that charisma. In doing this it will be preserving that special pluriformity that has been characteristic of, and very special to, the history of the Catholic school. Of immediate interest here is the extent to which parents and otherstakeholders in the home of self-managing schools, Tasmania Tasmania(tăzmā`nēə), island state (1991 pop. 359,286), 26,383 sq mi (68,332 sq km), SE Commonwealth of Australia. It is separated from Australia by the Bass Strait and lies 150 mi (240 km) south of the state of Victoria. , actuallyprefer contractual or responsive forms of accountability, and theprinciples of subsidiarity, pluriformity and complimentarity, instead ofself-management, uniform structures and comparing the performance oflearners, teachers and leaders in a context of neo-centralism. Context There is persistent evidence in systems and at national level inAustralia that parents are deeply concerned with accountability policiesand practices. One example at each level must suffice suf��fice?v. suf��ficed, suf��fic��ing, suf��fic��esv.intr.1. To meet present needs or requirements; be sufficient: These rations will suffice until next week. , both examplesfocusing on the assessment and reporting of student learning. In 1993,the then Tasmanian Minister of Education, the Hon Honabbr (= honourable, honorary) → en t��tulos . John Beswick Beswick could be Beswick, East Riding of Yorkshire Beswick, Greater Manchester ,commissioned his independent policy advisory reference group, theTasmanian Education Council (TEC), to advise on (a) parents'opinions concerning the nature and frequency of reports from schools andparents, (b) the type of information parents preferred, and (c) theextent to which reports on students should provide information about astudent's performance compared with that of other students. TheTEC's survey gained responses from 2166 parents and another 21extended responses from schools and school organisations. The data wereinterpreted carefully. The TEC (1993) reported that the most frequent requests fromparents were for written reports once a term, formal parent/teacherinterviews twice a year (essentially current general practice), andcurriculum information sessions early in the year (far less common inpractice) outlining (a) the program to be covered and (b) identifyingexpected learning outcomes. General satisfaction was recorded withrecent initiatives, such as journals and folios, which had helpedimprove parental awareness of student learning. The importance of earlyadvice of educational or behavioural Adj. 1. behavioural - of or relating to behavior; "behavioral sciences"behavioral difficulties, and collaboration Working together on a project. See collaborative software. between teachers and parents, were both emphasised. With regard to thedata that parents valued, the survey showed that they wanted accurateinformation on curriculum content, expected learning outcomes, theirchild's academic progress, their child's attitude, behaviourand social skills, their strengths and weaknesses, and how they asparents could help their child learn. The TEC also found: overwhelming support for some type of comparative assessment and reporting. Parents, particularly in the primary sector, are keen to have some form of `benchmark' by which to evaluate their child's educational development. They particularly stressed the need for having a statement of expected learning outcomes early in the school year, against which they could evaluate their child's progress during the year. (p.8) There was no evidence offered by the TEC about the demand fornorm-referenced and standardised testing of numeracy numeracyMathematical literacy Neurology The ability to understand mathematical concepts, perform calculations and interpret and use statistical information. Cf Acalculia. and reading (thencurrent practice in Tasmania at Years 10 and 14, now suspended sus��pend?v. sus��pend��ed, sus��pend��ing, sus��pendsv.tr.1. To bar for a period from a privilege, office, or position, usually as a punishment: suspend a student from school. ). On theother hand, the TEC did conclude that (a) parent education in the areaof criterion-based assessment and (b) a central clarification ofeducational goals and operational guidelines guidelines,n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. , particularly for earlychildhood and primary education, would be seen as helpful by parents. Tothis latter end, the TEC offered a draft policy comprising `educationalobjectives' and an `educational framework' intended to ensurethat the accountability procedures in Tasmanian schools were bothflexible and effective. On the other hand, the TEC (1993) insisted thatthere was a major structural limitation to more effective accountabilitypolicies in Tasmanian schools: If mechanisms such as this are going to work, they need to be under control of, and accountable to, a school-based authority. We believe that the best way for this to happen is through school councils. Therefore the Council is concerned that, in the proposed new Education Act, school councils have not been made compulsory. (p. 10) Although the Tasmanian government responded by seeking toaccelerate the formation of more school councils, the tone and thrust ofthis advice remain pertinent PERTINENT, evidence. Those facts which tend to prove the allegations of the party offering them, are called pertinent; those which have no such tendency are called impertinent, 8 Toull. n. 22. By pertinent is also meant that which belongs. Willes, 319. . They cohere cohere (kōhēr´),v to stick together, to unite, to form a solid mass. with more recent nationalexpressions of parents' views. The two peak national parent bodiesof Australia, the Australian Council of State School Organisations(ACCSO) and the Australian Parents Council (APC (1) (American Power Conversion Corporation, West Kingston, RI, www.apcc.com) The leading manufacturer of UPS systems and surge suppressors, founded in 1981 by Rodger Dowdell, Neil Rasmussen and Emanual Landsman, three electronic power engineers who had worked at MIT. ), collaborated toarticulate articulate/ar��tic��u��late/ (ahr-tik��u-lat)1. to pronounce clearly and distinctly.2. to make speech sounds by manipulation of the vocal organs.3. to express in coherent verbal form.4. their joint perspective on assessment and reporting(ACCSO/APC, 1996). Extensive consultations in affiliated stateorganisations had identified six key parental needs: to feel welcome and comfortable in their children's school, and confident in offering suggestions and comments; opportunities and encouragement to share knowledge of their children and their children's experience of school with their children's teachers; to realise a partnership with teachers for the children's learning at school; to ensure and be assured that their children achieve optimum levels of literacy and numeracy; written reports covering all facets of their children's progress at school and which describe a relationship to the progress of children their age; and exit reports encompassing the range of their children's academic and co-curricular achievements and participation at school. (p.5) ACCSO/APC (1996) concluded that twelve principles should underpineffective, just, equitable equitableadj. 1) just, based on fairness and not legal technicalities. 2) refers to positive remedies (orders to do something, not money damages) employed by the courts to solve disputes or give relief. (See: equity) EQUITABLE. and ethically defensible de��fen��si��ble?adj.Capable of being defended, protected, or justified: defensible arguments.de��fen assessment andreporting procedures intended to provide balanced, comprehensive andvalid information: 1 Parents are entitled en��ti��tle?tr.v. en��ti��tled, en��ti��tling, en��ti��tles1. To give a name or title to.2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: to continuing, quality information regardingtheir children's education through a variety of reportingmechanisms. 2 Any form of assessment should be integral to the curriculum anddesigned to inform, support and improve learning outcomes. 3 Assessment and reporting processes should make provision forparent and student input about teaching and learning. 4 Parents and their organisations must have an active role indeveloping and implementing assessment and reporting policies andprocesses at the school, the system, the state and the nation. 5 Schools, systems and governments, state and federal, must makeexplicit and public the purposes for which they wish to collect data. 6 Assessment data must not be used for the purpose of establishingand publishing competitive judgements about schools/systems/states orterritories. 7 Parents must be informed by all those who seek such data aboutstudent performance, of the uses to which such information will be put. 8 Data collected from students in school should be used inaccordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[]As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with its stated purposes. Any subsequent uses should bespecifically negotiated. 9 Individual student assessments are confidential to the student,his/her parents and appropriate school staff. 10 Parents have the right to withdraw their children from specificsystem, statewide and national testing. 11 Assessment data for statewide or national purposes should becollected by statistically valid, light sampling procedures only. 12 Appropriate appeal mechanisms should be established and madepublic to protect the rights of students and parents in matters ofstudent assessment and reporting at the school, state and nationallevel. (p.6) The case made by ACCSO/ APC for improving the assessment andreporting of student learning defined accountability as part of andsubsequent to formative evaluation Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation which has the purpose of improving programmes. It goes under other names such as developmental evaluation and implementation evaluation. ; promoted a mutually respectful re��spect��ful?adj.Showing or marked by proper respect.re��spectful��ly adv. partnership between stakeholders including the joint interpretation ofdata; argued for the development of trustworthy databases and benchmarksof achievement; and gave primacy pri��ma��cy?n. pl. pri��ma��cies1. The state of being first or foremost.2. Ecclesiastical The office, rank, or province of primate. to the interests of learners, parentsand responsive professionals. The sophistication so��phis��ti��cate?v. so��phis��ti��cat��ed, so��phis��ti��cat��ing, so��phis��ti��catesv.tr.1. To cause to become less natural, especially to make less naive and more worldly.2. of the case wasimpressive. It was situated in a context of social and cultural change,labour market and technological change, rising demand for participatorypolicy making and decision making, saliency sa��li��ence? also sa��li��en��cyn. pl. sa��li��en��ces also sa��li��en��cies1. The quality or condition of being salient.2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight.Noun 1. of educational`outcomes' and the potential `narrowing' of curriculum andtesting, while urging caution, ongoing professional development andequal attention to inputs, process and outcomes. There are four features common to the TEC survey findings and theACCSO/ APC policy recommendations: (a) the need for coherent systemic systemic/sys��tem��ic/ (sis-tem��ik) pertaining to or affecting the body as a whole. sys��tem��icadj.1. Of or relating to a system.2. policies supported by stakeholders that are to be applied sensitively atclassroom, school and system levels; (b) the need for transparent,educative, fair, sensitive and rigorous processes; (c) the need forappropriate, explicit, and comprehensive criteria; and (d) that systemaccountability obligations are subordinate or additional to thosedischarged in classrooms and schools, and, therefore, that systemicprocesses and criteria are derived from or to cohere with rather thandetermine classroom and school accountability practices. This helpsjustify the hypothesis that parents of public school children preferorganisational subsidiarity, pluriformity and complimentarity ratherthan neo-centralist accountability structures characterised by corporatemanagerialism, uniformity and comparability. The hypothesis was examinedas part of a broader study of accountability policy preferences. Methods The Educative Accountability Policies in Locally-managed Schoolsproject was commissioned in Tasmania by the Department of Education andthe Arts (DEA DEA - Data Encryption Algorithm ) in 1992, with subsequent support coming from theUniversity of Tasmania (body, education) University of Tasmania -ftp://ftp.utas.edu.au/. and the Australian Research Council The Australian Research Council (ARC) is the Australian Government’s main agency for allocating research funding to academics and researchers in Australian universities. Small andLarge Grants Schemes. Since the detailed methodology is availableelsewhere (Macpherson Mac��pher��son? , James 1736-1796.Scottish poet who claimed to have translated the works of Ossian, a third-century Gaelic poet and warrior. Although based on unauthenticated original texts, the translations influenced many writers. , 1996a; 1997), the research questions and methodsused may be summarised. Two research questions were used: (a) What processes (procedures,actions or methods) should be used to collect data, report on andimprove students' learning, teachers' teaching andleaders' leadership? (b) What criteria (standards, benchmarks orindicators) should be used to evaluate students' learning,teachers' teaching and leaders' leadership? Qualitative qualitative/qual��i��ta��tive/ (kwahl��i-ta?tiv) pertaining to quality. Cf. quantitative. qualitativepertaining to observations of a categorical nature, e.g. breed, sex. data were gathered by school community workshops andinterviews in a one-eighth n. 1. an eightht part.Noun 1. one-eighth - one part in eight equal partseighthcommon fraction, simple fraction - the quotient of two integers stratified sample Noun 1. stratified sample - the population is divided into strata and a random sample is taken from each stratumproportional sample, representative sample of schools ([n.sub.1] =28). Data were also collected from all stakeholder executive teams andDEA district and central officials. A draft 73 item questionnaire wasthen trial tested with teachers in the first sample of schools andgained a 66 per cent return rate. As the number of stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. andopportunistic opportunistic/op��por��tu��nis��tic/ (op?er-tldbomacn-is��tik)1. denoting a microorganism which does not ordinarily cause disease but becomes pathogenic under certain circumstances.2. samples of parents, other teachers, principals and systemadministrators increased in 1993, the Accountability PolicyQuestionnaire (APQ APQ Accordo di Programma QuadroAPQ Association des Parapl��giques du Qu��becAPQ Association des Pathologistes du Qu��becAPQ Art Pepper Quartet (jazz group)APQ Armaments Planning QuestionnaireAPQ Advanced Placement Question ) was gradually expanded to 134 items to accommodateall views. This inclusionary approach meant that all qualitative datafrom all interest groups were used to develop the instrument which wasthen used in 1994 to measure the intensity of support for each proposalin each stakeholder group. A two-stage stratified sample was then used. There are 209 primary,district high, and high schools in Tasmania This is a list of schools in Tasmania. UniversitiesUniversity of Tasmania CollegesClaremont College Elizabeth College Hellyer College Hobart College Launceston College Newstead College . Special schools andsecondary colleges (Years 11-12) serve regions and were excluded fromthis study. This second one-eighth sample ([n.sub.2]=28) was structuredto be proportionately pro��por��tion��ate?adj.Being in due proportion; proportional.tr.v. pro��por��tion��at��ed, pro��por��tion��at��ing, pro��por��tion��atesTo make proportionate. representative of type, size, rurality,educational needs of students and isolation, using DEA classifications.Then, in each school, the principal was asked to invite the 10 parentsand 10 teachers most interested in educational policy making to respondto the instrument. Given their responsibilities, and uneven populations,all primary, district high and secondary principals, all district DEApersonnel, and all central DEA personnel with schools-related functionswere surveyed. Although all types of schools were appropriatelyrepresented, district high school parents, teachers and principals wereslightly over-represented. On the other hand, district high schools tendto be in relatively conservative and rural locations, more often facingquestions of viability, have less experienced staff and to be moretransparent to their communities than larger urban schools. Analysis strategy was in large part determined by the views of thestakeholder leaders comprising the project's informal referencegroup. For example, support for each of the 134 policy options in theAPQ was measured and classified as percentages of respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. in eachsubgroup sub��group?n.1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group.2. A subordinate group.3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group.tr.v. expressing strong agreement (SA), agreement (A), not sure (NS),disagreement (D) and strong disagreement (SD). The responses SA, A, NS,D and SD were assigned as��sign?tr.v. as��signed, as��sign��ing, as��signs1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.2. the values 1-5 and means, modes and standarddeviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. were calculated. The statistical significance of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial.In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality was, however, of little interest among stakeholder leaders who, instead,shared a concern for `political significance'. They came to theview that when more than 70 per cent of a group indicated that theystrongly agreed or agreed with a proposal, the item was deemed to be`supported'. When the total percentage strongly agreeing andagreeing with a policy option was between 30 and 70, support was deemedto be `ambivalent'. Where less than 30 per cent of a group agreedor strongly agreed with a policy proposal, the item was held to be`unsupported'. Despite this shared view of political significance,the differences between parents' means and all respondents'means on all 134 items were tested for statistical significance (i.e. p[is less than] 0.05) using t tests. Seminars and workshops were then used to help interpret,disseminate dis��sem��i��nate?v. dis��sem��i��nat��ed, dis��sem��i��nat��ing, dis��sem��i��natesv.tr.1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed.2. and apply the findings in schools and in systems on demand.The epistemological e��pis��te��mol��o��gy?n.The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity.[Greek epist implications and interim findings of this approachto accountability policy research have also been discussed elsewhere(Macpherson, 1995, 1996b). To summarise Verb 1. summarise - be a summary of; "The abstract summarizes the main ideas in the paper"sum, sum up, summarizesum up, summarize, summarise, resume - give a summary (of); "he summed up his results"; "I will now summarize" this section, an iterative it��er��a��tive?adj.1. Characterized by or involving repetition, recurrence, reiteration, or repetitiousness.2. Grammar Frequentative.Noun 1. and co-operative policyresearch process used qualitative and quantitative methods to createcategories and, thus, to identify (a) stakeholders' policypreferences concerning accountability criteria and processes, and (b)how Tasmanian parents' perspectives compare with otherstakeholders' views. Findings are now reported. The columns inTables 4-9 labelled % indicate the percentage that strongly agreed addedto the percentage that agreed to each proposal. Table 4 Support for proposed processes to collect data, report onand improve students' learning Parents' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:parent/teacher interviews 1.42 97.2teachers evaluate and plan lessons thoroughly 1.57 96.5teachers written checklists and running records 1.67 89.1conferencing between teacher and student 1.81 93.1parent input and policy explanations 1.72 92.8the sampling of student work (e.g. folios) 1.73 92.5reports -- clear and accurate descriptions of learning 1.73 92.2parent/teacher/student discussions 1.76 91.6teachers identify outcomes for each student 1.72 91.7teachers' observations 1.78 98.0reporting through publications and public relations 1.85 87.5parents given goals, expected outcomes, and individual expectations at the beginning of each year 1.90 84.0support-staff reports; guidance, welfare, speech, health 1.93 84.2teachers evaluate and plan programs systematically 1.94 86.2teacher-designed mastery and diagnostic tests 2.10 82.5Ambivalent support :student's own self assessment 2.16 63.5reports with marks or grades 2.19 71.7formative evaluation related to teaching objectives 2.27 63.7statewide, norm-referenced, standardised tests of literacy and numeracy 2.27 72.1P & F/school council review, discuss and report learning 2.80 46.5peer appraisal 3.48 18.1Unsupported:reports allow parents to compare child with others 3.66 23.1 All groups' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:parent/teacher interviews 1.46 97.2teachers evaluate and plan lessons thoroughly 1.58 96.4teachers written checklists and running records 1.93 82.7conferencing between teacher and student 1.74 93.2parent input and policy explanations 1.82 90.0the sampling of student work (e.g. folios) 1.77 91.1reports -- clear and accurate descriptions of learning 1.89 86.8parent/teacher/student discussions 1.80 91.9teachers identify outcomes for each student 1.80 89.3teachers' observations 1.71 97.9reporting through publications and public relations 1.84 87.3parents given goals, expected outcomes, and individual expectations at the beginning of each year 2.12 73.5support-staff reports; guidance, welfare, speech, health 1.99 83.4teachers evaluate and plan programs systematically 1.77 91.8teacher-designed mastery and diagnostic tests 1.93 87.7Ambivalent support :student's own self assessment 1.92 82.5reports with marks or grades 2.89 47.6formative evaluation related to teaching objectives 2.17 73.6statewide, norm-referenced, standardised tests of literacy and numeracy 2.70 54.2P & F/school council review, discuss and report learning 3.09 33.4peer appraisal 3.05 35.1Unsupported:reports allow parents to compare child with others 3.89 17.0 Differences of meansProcesses proposed by all stakeholders t p <Supported:parent/teacher interviews 0.42 nsteachers evaluate and plan lessons thoroughly 2.48 .02teachers written checklists and running records 3.61 .001conferencing between teacher and student 1.21 nsparent input and policy explanations 1.58 nsthe sampling of student work (e.g. folios) 0.64 nsreports -- clear and accurate descriptions of learning 2.69 .01parent/teacher/student discussions 0.64 nsteachers identify outcomes for each student 1.18 nsteachers' observations 1.48 nsreporting through publications and public relations 0.12 nsparents given goals, expected outcomes, and individual expectations at the beginning of each year 2.44 .02support-staff reports; guidance, welfare, speech, health 0.77 nsteachers evaluate and plan programs systematically 0.17 nsteacher-designed mastery and diagnostic tests 1.14 nsAmbivalent support :student's own self assessment 2.63 .01reports with marks or grades 5.70 .001formative evaluation related to teaching objectives 1.54 nsstatewide, norm-referenced, standardised tests of literacy and numeracy 4.03 .001P & F/school council review, discuss and report learning 9.28 .001peer appraisal 4.49 .001Unsupported:reports allow parents to compare child with others 1.97 .05 Table 5 Support for proposed processes criteria for evaluatingstudents' learning Parents' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:measures of individual progress 1.72 97.2student attitudes to school, teachers, peers, learning and homework 1.79 93.8measures of students' self-esteem and life skills 1.80 88.2results of objective assessment used 1.86 94.5indicators developed jointly by parent, teacher, student 1.97 70.1performance indicators developed within schools by teachers 2.06 81.3indicators from research literature used in planning 2.15 78.7criteria developed by research in the classroom 2.15 75.2performance indicators developed by teachers through subject moderation 2.16 76.2judgements by teachers 2.25 75.8Ambivalent support:performance indicators in state and national policy documents 2.29 65.3student participation rates (attendance, retention) 2.30 71.0parental expectations 2.84 45.6 All groups' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:measures of individual progress 1.77 93.2student attitudes to school, teachers, peers, learning and homework 1.90 89.4measures of students' self-esteem and life skills 1.94 84.4results of objective assessment used 1.85 92.7indicators developed jointly by parent, teacher, student 2.13 77.8performance indicators developed within schools by teachers 1.95 85.4indicators from research literature used in planning 2.17 72.7criteria developed by research in the classroom 2.24 71.4performance indicators developed by teachers through subject moderation 2.23 72.0judgements by teachers 1.99 84.2Ambivalent support:performance indicators in state and national policy documents 1.99 84.2student participation rates (attendance, retention) 2.24 66.4parental expectations 2.96 37.6 Differences of meansProcesses proposed by all stakeholders t p<Supported:measures of individual progress 0.86 nsstudent attitudes to school, teachers, peers, learning and homework 1.72 nsmeasures of students' self-esteem and life skills 2.04 .05results of objective assessment used 0.19 nsindicators developed jointly by parent, teacher, student 2.29 .05performance indicators developed within schools by teachers 1.63 nsindicators from research literature used in planning 1.51 nscriteria developed by research in the classroom 1.40 nsperformance indicators developed by teachers through subject moderation 1.18 nsjudgements by teachers 3.44 .001Ambivalent support:performance indicators in state and national policy documents 2.20 .05student participation rates (attendance, retention) 2.79 .01parental expectations 1.16 ns Table 6 Support for proposed processes to collecting data,reporting on and improving teachers' teaching Parent viewsProcess proposed by all stakeholders Mean Mean %Supported:discussion between colleagues 1.57 95.9training and support to identify and cope with `at-risk' students 1.56 96.5planned development of teachers 1.72 92.4report teacher appraisals to the individual teacher 1.73 89.5encourage teachers to read and do research 1.76 94.2transition program for newly appointed teachers 1.89 79.6co-operative learning between colleagues (e.g. mentoring) 1.99 87.6appraisal of student outcomes 2.04 84.2self-evaluation 2.10 81.4individual and senior staff discuss appraisals 2.14 76.0an appraisal of planning 2.17 81.2documentation of best practices 2.18 73.1feedback and appraisal by peers 2.20 72.8negotiating new goals for professional development 2.23 75.8Ambivalent support:planned development of classrooms 2.16 72.5feedback and appraisal by parents 2.21 70.3report teaching quality to the DEA for promotion and school development purposes 2.24 69.8standardised test results go back to the individual teacher 2.27 73.4the school review process 2.29 61.9feedback and appraisal by more senior school colleagues 2.34 71.3opportunity for parents to develop as co-teachers 2.42 62.9opportunities for parents to consultand co-plan teaching programs 2.58 54.9feedback and appraisal by students 2.63 54.8assess teacher's contribution to school planning 2.72 54.1feedback and appraisal by an independent expert 2.52 51.0feedback and appraisal by the P&F/school council 2.69 51.4P&F/school council discuss teacher and classroom development 2.87 43.0reporting of teacher appraisals to colleagues as part of professional development 2.93 38.9network more effectively with the teachers' union 2.93 30.1general reporting of teacher appraisals to parents as part of school planning development 3.12 36.8Unsupported.the selection of teachers should be more localised 3.15 27.4 All groups viewsProcess proposed by all stakeholders Mean Mean %Supported:discussion between colleagues 1.38 98.4training and support to identify and cope with `at-risk' students 1.54 97.7planned development of teachers 1.49 95.8report teacher appraisals to the individual teacher 1.64 92.7encourage teachers to read and do research 1.86 88.0transition program for newly appointed teachers 1.86 80.4co-operative learning between colleagues (e.g. mentoring) 1.80 92.0appraisal of student outcomes 2.09 80.3self-evaluation 1.82 89.7individual and senior staff discuss appraisals 2.28 70.4an appraisal of planning 2.16 81.6documentation of best practices 2.06 78.1feedback and appraisal by peers 2.00 81.5negotiating new goals for professional development 1.92 88.3Ambivalent supportplanned development of classrooms 2.28 65.3feedback and appraisal by parents 2.60 52.8report teaching quality to the DEA for promotion and school development purposes 2.55 55.4standardised test results go back to the individual teacher 2.47 63.4the school review process 2.22 66.4feedback and appraisal by more senior school colleagues 2.44 65.7opportunity for parents to develop as co-teachers 2.58 55.2opportunities for parents to consultand co-plan teaching programs 2.88 42.3feedback and appraisal by students 2.59 65.9assess teacher's contribution to school planning 2.72 52.3feedback and appraisal by an independent expert 2.89 36.0feedback and appraisal by the P&F/school council 3.11 32.0P&F/school council discuss teacher and classroom development 3.23 29.0reporting of teacher appraisals to colleagues as part of professional development 3.20 30.6network more effectively with the teachers' union 2.96 28.8general reporting of teacher appraisals to parents as part of school planning development 3.69 19.8Unsupported.the selection of teachers should be more localised 3.35 23.9 Differences ofParent views meansProcess proposed by all stakeholders Mean t p <Supported:discussion between colleagues 3.10 .001training and support to identify and cope with `at-risk' students 0.52 nsplanned development of teachers 3.66 .001report teacher appraisals to the individual teacher 1.48 nsencourage teachers to read and do research 1.58 nstransition program for newly appointed teachers 0.37 nsco-operative learning between colleagues (e.g. mentoring) 3.35 .001appraisal of student outcomes 0.78 nsself-evaluation 3.49 .001individual and senior staff discuss appraisals 1.69 nsan appraisal of planning 0.16 nsdocumentation of best practices 1.75 nsfeedback and appraisal by peers 2.43 .02negotiating new goals for professional development 4.32 .001Ambivalent supportplanned development of classrooms 1.63 nsfeedback and appraisal by parents 3.87 .001report teaching quality to the DEA for promotion and school development purposes 4.03 .001standardised test results go back to the individual teacher 2.37 .02the school review process 0.86 nsfeedback and appraisal by more senior school colleagues 1.37 nsopportunity for parents to develop as co-teachers 1.82 nsopportunities for parents to consultand co-plan teaching programs 2.85 .01feedback and appraisal by students 0.42 nsassess teacher's contribution to school planning 0.00 nsfeedback and appraisal by an independent expert 3.43 .001feedback and appraisal by the P&F/school council 3.94 .001P&F/school council discuss teacher and classroom development 3.31 nsreporting of teacher appraisals to colleagues as part of professional development 2.94 .01network more effectively with the teachers' union 0.33 nsgeneral reporting of teacher appraisals to parents as part of school planning development 5.11 .001Unsupported.the selection of teachers should be more localised 2.04 .05Table 7 Support for criteria for evaluating teachers' teaching Parent's viewCriteria proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:classroom environment 1.68 93.2organisational skills 1.78 93.2how well work is set, monitored and marked 1.79 91.1interpersonal communications within the classroom 1.84 90.3behaviour management skills 1.80 92.5teachers' attitudes to students, parents and colleagues 1.86 88.2student progress 1.82 86.9teachers' knowledge of subject and child/adolescent development 1.88 89.0the attitude of children (e.g. enthusiasm) 1.93 82.6instructional expertise 2.01 83.4effective implementation of school and curriculum policies 2.12 82.1willingness to engage in continuing professional development 2.13 77.1Support ambivalent'effectiveness of teachers' written records and plans 2.25 74.1students' achievement levels in K-12 Framework 2.25 62.3teachers' competencies in DEA job descriptions 2.42 56.5communication skills with stakeholders 2.43 53.9teachers' participation in school and community activities 2.66 53.9leadership services given by teachers in school 2.69 50.7 All groups' viewsCriteria proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:classroom environment 1.60 95.3organisational skills 1.79 92.0how well work is set, monitored and marked 2.00 83.5interpersonal communications within the classroom 1.70 94.7behaviour management skills 1.79 91.5teachers' attitudes to students, parents and colleagues 1.97 85.1student progress 1.99 81.0teachers' knowledge of subject and child/adolescent development 1.86 90.1the attitude of children (e.g. enthusiasm) 2.10 76.5instructional expertise 2.03 82.3effective implementation of school and curriculum policies 2.02 85.7willingness to engage in continuing professional development 2.08 77.9Support ambivalent'effectiveness of teachers' written records and plans 2.46 65.8students' achievement levels in K-12 Framework 2.39 62.0teachers' competencies in DEA job descriptions 2.40 63.6communication skills with stakeholders 2.23 67.0teachers' participation in school and community activities 2.83 52.0leadership services given by teachers in school 2.66 52.0 Differences of meansCriteria proposed by all stakeholders t p <Supported:classroom environment 1.18 nsorganisational skills 0.15 nshow well work is set, monitored and marked 2.87 .01interpersonal communications within the classroom 2.38 .02behaviour management skills 0.16 nsteachers' attitudes to students, parents and colleagues 1.56 nsstudent progress 2.03 .05teachers' knowledge of subject and child/adolescent development 0.30 nsthe attitude of children (e.g. enthusiasm) 2.04 .05instructional expertise 0.33 nseffective implementation of school and curriculum policies 1.71 nswillingness to engage in continuing professional development 0.51 nsSupport ambivalent'effectiveness of teachers' written records and plans 2.38 .02students' achievement levels in K-12 Framework 1.81 nsteachers' competencies in DEA job descriptions 0.25 nscommunication skills with stakeholders 2.85 .01teachers' participation in school and community activities 1.60 nsleadership services given by teachers in school 0.35 ns Table 8 Support for process to collect data, report on and improveleaders' leadership Parents' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:appraisal of support and feedback given to staff 1.84 90.4provision and generation of a school vision 1.98 86.2skill development programs, e.g. in governance and management 1.99 81.5improved by using feedback from staff 2.01 87.5quality of reporting to parents and community 2.01 87.5evaluate the coherence between vision, plans and outcomes 2.06 82.6feedback from parents and students 2.08 80.6peer networks reflect on challenges of practice 2.16 72.6Support ambivalent:parents, teachers, DEA collaborate in principal selection 2.24 67.4survey of the school climate 2.28 67.6an appraisal of policy making strategies used 2.30 69.6self-appraisal 2.36 68.1appraisals should be reported to the DEA 2.43 58.5an appraisal by school colleagues 2.43 64.1an appraisal of the quality of external liaison 2.44 54.8an appraisal by the P&F/school council 2.52 55.1peer appraisal 2.55 57.0improved by using a mentoring process 2.58 45.9an appraisal by the DEA 2.65 51.7appraisals reported to individuals and colleagues as part of the professional development program 2.75 43.3appraisal reported to parents as part of school development program 2.94 37.8fixed term and negotiated performance contracts 2.94 38.7P&F/school council set leadership service policies 2.97 32.7an appraisal by the community 3.08 30.6Unsupported:more localised selection of leaders 3.06 28.7overseas exchanges 3.30 20.0 All groups' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %appraisal of support and feedback given to staff 1.78 91.8provision and generation of a school vision 1.89 87.7skill development programs, e.g. in governance and management 1.90 87.1improved by using feedback from staff 2.06 84.3quality of reporting to parents and community 2.11 82.1evaluate the coherence between vision, plans and outcomes 1.84 90.3feedback from parents and students 2.26 71.7peer networks reflect on challenges of practice 1.97 79.7Support ambivalent:parents, teachers, DEA collaborate in principal selection 2.42 60.3survey of the school climate 2.17 74.4an appraisal of policy making strategies used 2.18 74.7self-appraisal 1.96 83.3appraisals should be reported to the DEA 2.76 43.3an appraisal by school colleagues 2.24 74.0an appraisal of the quality of external liaison 2.40 59.8an appraisal by the P&F/school council 2.76 47.2peer appraisal 2.25 70.7improved by using a mentoring process 2.28 60.5an appraisal by the DEA 2.78 45.5appraisals reported to individuals and colleagues as part of the professional development program 2.99 34.2appraisal reported to parents as part of school development program 3.37 21.3fixed term and negotiated performance contracts 3.33 27.4P&F/school council set leadership service policies 3.35 21.9an appraisal by the community 3.13 25.7Unsupported.'more localised selection of leaders 3.35 18.1overseas exchanges 3.02 28.8 Differences of meansProcesses proposed by all stakeholders t p <appraisal of support and feedback given to staff 1.02 nsprovision and generation of a school vision 1.46 nsskill development programs, e.g. in governance and management 1.23 nsimproved by using feedback from staff 0.82 nsquality of reporting to parents and community 1.80 nsevaluate the coherence between vision, plans and outcomes 3.86 .001feedback from parents and students 2.48 .02peer networks reflect on challenges of practice 2.95 .01Support ambivalent:parents, teachers, DEA collaborate in principal selection 1.87 nssurvey of the school climate 1.53 nsan appraisal of policy making strategies used 1.86 nsself-appraisal 4.41 .001appraisals should be reported to the DEA 4.09 .001an appraisal by school colleagues 2.25 .05an appraisal of the quality of external liaison 0.51 nsan appraisal by the P&F/school council 2.21 .05peer appraisal 3.73 .001improved by using a mentoring process 3.88 .001an appraisal by the DEA 1.44 nsappraisals reported to individuals and colleagues as part of the professional development program 2.76 .01appraisal reported to parents as part of school development program 4.23 .001fixed term and negotiated performance contracts 3.43 .001P&F/school council set leadership service policies 3.88 .001an appraisal by the community 0.53 nsUnsupported.'more localised selection of leaders 3.16 .01overseas exchanges 3.14 .01 Table 9 Support for criteria for evaluating leaders'leadership service Parents' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Mean %Supported:capacity to hear and care for others 1.60 98.0student and teacher morale and motivation 1.74 89.3ability to plan outcomes and achieve priorities 1.84 93.7the extent to which staff support their leaders 1.87 89.3the openness and climate/tone of the school 1.91 81.5capacity to make and implement policy 1.93 87.8management and organisational skills (evaluation, budgeting and governance) 1.93 87.1valuing of creativity and productivity in school 1.99 82.5evidence of the quality of teaching by the staff 2.09 79.0extent of collaborative decision making 2.11 74.0evidence of learning by staff and students 2.13 77.3quality of internal and external communications 2.17 77.4Support ambivalent:indicators from research literature used in plans to improve leadership 2.31 62.2capacities as learners and researchers 2.32 76.0extent of professional development within the school 2.32 69.0performance indicators in guidelines provided by the DEA 2.34 59.0the expectations of the community 2.46 64.0extent to which parents support school leaders 2.49 57.9recommendations from school reviews 2.41 58.3leaders' relevant qualifications 2.51 63.7the quality of the physical environment 2.54 57.6national competency indicators for managers 2.54 48.6 All groups' viewsProcesses proposed by all stakeholders Means %Supported:capacity to hear and care for others 1.56 96.8student and teacher morale and motivation 1.77 88.8ability to plan outcomes and achieve priorities 1.78 94.2the extent to which staff support their leaders 1.93 84.5the openness and climate/tone of the school 1.76 88.8capacity to make and implement policy 1.86 90.9management and organisational skills (evaluation, budgeting and governance) 1.89 88.3valuing of creativity and productivity in school 2.04 79.5evidence of the quality of teaching by the staff 2.21 74.6extent of collaborative decision making 1.93 83.4evidence of learning by staff and students 2.16 73.6quality of internal and external communications 2.10 79.9Support ambivalent:indicators from research literature used in plans to improve leadership 2.32 61.1capacities as learners and researchers 2.29 68.6extent of professional development within the school 2.16 74.9performance indicators in guidelines provided by the DEA 2.36 62.9the expectations of the community 2.46 61.0extent to which parents support school leaders 2.54 54.4recommendations from school reviews 2.46 55.9leaders' relevant qualifications 2.75 51.7the quality of the physical environment 2.53 58.8national competency indicators for managers 2.69 40.6 Differences of meansProcesses proposed by all stakeholders t p<Supported:capacity to hear and care for others 0.78 nsstudent and teacher morale and motivation 0.47 nsability to plan outcomes and achieve priorities 1.15 nsthe extent to which staff support their leaders 0.88 nsthe openness and climate/tone of the school 2.07 .05capacity to make and implement policy 1.20 nsmanagement and organisational skills (evaluation, budgeting and governance) 0.58 nsvaluing of creativity and productivity in school 0.76 nsevidence of the quality of teaching by the staff 1.56 nsextent of collaborative decision making 2.47 .02evidence of learning by staff and students 0.37 nsquality of internal and external communications 1.01 nsSupport ambivalent:indicators from research literature used in plans to improve leadership 0.15 nscapacities as learners and researchers 0.41 nsextent of professional development within the school 1.92 nsperformance indicators in guidelines provided by the DEA 0.30 nsthe expectations of the community 0.00 nsextent to which parents support school leaders 0.43 nsrecommendations from school reviews 0.70 nsleaders' relevant qualifications 2.39 .02the quality of the physical environment 0.11 nsnational competency indicators for managers 2.04 .05 Findings The findings of immediate interest are the extent to which parentssupported accountability processes and criteria proposed by allstakeholders, and how well their views matched the views of otherstakeholders. Table 4 compares support for methods proposed forcollecting data, reporting on and improving students' learning. The four most evident features of Table 4 are (a) the extent ofavailable touchstone touchstoneBlack, silica-containing stone used in assaying to determine the purity of gold and silver. The metal to be assayed is rubbed on the touchstone, and then a sample of metal of known purity is rubbed on the stone right next to it. concerning processes, (b) the identification of`best practices', (c) that accounting for student learning is to becontextualised not at school or system level but in the classroom, and(d) that the preferred accountability processes related to learningshould focus largely on improving relationships and collaborative col��lab��o��rate?intr.v. col��lab��o��rat��ed, col��lab��o��rat��ing, col��lab��o��rates1. To work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort.2. actionresearch in classrooms. The statistically significant differencesbetween parents' and others' mean responses to supported itemscan be set aside given the high levels of political support. Theunexpected variance in support of statewide, norm-referenced,standardised tests of literacy and numeracy was related to othertechnical concerns and soon led to the suspension of such testing. Theexpected variance of support for peer appraisal, involving parents andfriends (P&F) associations or school councils and the use of marksand grades in reports confirmed that these proposals remaincontroversial. The finding that less than one in four parents wanted tocompare their child's learning with others destroyed a myth to thecontrary long held by some other stakeholders. Table 5 compares levels of support for all criteria suggested bystakeholders for evaluating students' learning. The responsesexhibit strong agreement between stakeholders over which learningevaluation criteria should be used. It is equally evident that allstakeholders believe that measurement should occur in the classroom andthat a broad range of indicators of action research and improvingclassroom relationships should be used. Again, little can be drawn fromstatistically significant differences except some reluctance by parentsto rely solely on teachers' judgements. All stakeholders, moreover,acknowledge the legitimacy LEGITIMACY. The state of being born in wedlock; that is, in a lawful manner. 2. Marriage is considered by all civilized nations as the only source of legitimacy; the qualities of husband and wife must be possessed by the parents in order to make the offspring of external criteria such as nationalprofiles of learning, state performance indicators, research findingsand moderation standards. There is some ambivalence ambivalence(ămbĭv`ələns), coexistence of two opposing drives, desires, feelings, or emotions toward the same person, object, or goal. The ambivalent person may be unaware of either of the opposing wishes. over usingparticipation rates as a proxy for learning and considerable doubt inall stakeholder groups over using parental expectations, a pointrevisited below. It will be recalled that the APQ also measured support foraccountability processes and criteria concerned with the quality ofteaching and leadership. Table 6 summarises the levels of support forall processes suggested by stakeholders to collect data, report on andimprove teachers' teaching. When compared with the levels of agreement exhibited in Tables 4and 5, Table 6 suggests that there is comparatively less touchstoneavailable to stakeholders concerning teaching accountability processes.This suggests that the quality of teaching is a less salient policyissue than the quality of teaching in terms of accountability. On theother hand, the policy proposals supported by all stakeholders suggeststhat accounting for and improving the quality of teaching is not seen asa classroom or system issue but as a school responsibility, with schooldefined as a community of professionals. The focus is on the quality ofprofessional appraisal and feedback, professional relationships andco-development, and collegial action research and planning. On the otherhand, some parents are doubtful about the efficacy of methods that relyso heavily on local intraprofessionalism, and all stakeholders doubt thecapacity of the Tasmanian school review process to improve teaching. The considerable number of proposals supported by parents, yetdoubted by other stakeholders, were then examined in closer detail. Theminor ambivalence over `planned development of classrooms' wastraced to a small number of district high school teachers and secondaryschool principals. Ambivalence over feedback and appraisal from parentswas felt most acutely by secondary and district high school teachers,district DEA personnel, and primary and secondary school principals.These findings came as no surprise; district high schools have a uniquecontext as noted above, high schools tend to be less responsivestructurally, and parents' complaints not resolved by schools arereferred to district DEA personnel. What was unanticipated was the degree to which teachers weregenerally reluctant to support links between the quality of teaching andpromotion or school development, feedback and appraisal by more seniorcolleagues, parents having opportunities to co-plan or to develop asco-teachers, or for parents to be involved in planning improvements toteaching. Teachers, principals, and DEA personnel were markedly morereluctant to accept independent or parental expertise than were parents. In sum, Table 6 suggests that parents' desire to providefeedback and participate in the development of teaching services isunlikely to be satisfied until DEA personnel, principals, and teachersbecome more responsive and broaden the strategic base of schoolimprovement beyond what is seen by parents to be an over-exclusivereliance on teacher development. When the implications of Tables 4-6 aretaken together, it suggests that parents would prefer that theimprovement of learning and teaching be attempted through an integratedapproach to classroom development and school improvement. Instead ofmore teacher development for individual teachers or groups of teachers,parents appear to be asking for teaching accountability processes thatwill affirm and improve professionalism in a school community context. This impression is confirmed in Table 7 where the responses tocriteria proposed by all stakeholders to evaluate the quality ofteaching are compared. The presence of extensive touchstone criteria isstrongly evident in Table 7, despite further evidence that educators aresometimes reluctant to accept school community and systemicperspectives. This could be explained by professionalism being biased bycareerism ca��reer��ism?n.Pursuit of professional advancement as one's chief or sole aim: "Rampant careerism, which makes many a work place a joyless site, was in check"Mary McGrory. to the stage where accountability is seen as `politicallyincorrect' (Macpherson, 1996c). Compared with the learning criteriain Table 5, there is also less acknowledgement in Table 7 of the valueof external profiles of competencies, research or extra-professionalinterests. Only three of the fifteen criteria require systemicinvolvement; those concerning the effective implementation of school andcurriculum policies, the use of K-12, achievement levels and teachercompetencies in DEA job descriptions. All stakeholders assume that 15 of18 criteria can be defined and operationalised by using or developingthe expertise of each school community. Similarly, it is believed thatthe measurement and improvement of teaching should be a normal part ofschool life and that indicators of professionalism should relateteachers' knowledge, attitudes and skills to outcomes in theclassroom. In sum, it appears that all stakeholders expect accountabilityobligations concerned with the quality of teaching to be defined anddischarged in each school community with supportive interaction betweenthese learning organisations. Although parents are asking educators tobe more responsive to broader school community values, and join allother groups seeking better school pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. policies and practices,all stakeholders (including DEA personnel) appear to limit thesatisfaction of systemic priorities to the implementation of curriculumpolicies. Put another way, preferred accountability policies andpractices related to the quality of teaching imply high levels ofsubsidiarity, pluriformity and complementarity com��ple��men��tar��i��tyn.1. The correspondence or similarity between nucleotides or strands of nucleotides of DNA and RNA molecules that allows precise pairing.2. . The third part of the APQ measured support for accountabilityprocesses and criteria concerned with the quality of leadership. Theinstrument defined leaders as those who provide leadership services inschool communities. Table 8 summarises the levels of support for allprocesses suggested by stakeholders to collect data, report on andimprove leaders' leadership services. Five striking features of Table 8 are: (a) the area of policytouchstone available is comparatively more compact than in Tables 4 and6, (b) the extent to which preferred accountability processes assumethat leadership is a responsive service to colleagues and schoolcommunity, not to classroom or system, (c) the broad yet integratedrange of philosophical, strategic, political, cultural, managerial andevaluation capacities implied by the leadership duties supported by allstakeholders, (d) the comparatively high number of leadershipaccountability This article or section is written like a personal reflection or and may require .Please [ improve this article] by rewriting this article or section in an . processes favoured by some stakeholders that are indispute, and (e) that most controversy focuses on proposed leadershipappraisal processes. The significant differences of means suggest thatparents are yet to be as convinced as other groups are of the value ofself-appraisal, peer appraisal, appraisal by colleagues and mentoring.The proposed involvement of parental, professional and departmentalpersonnel in the selection of leaders evokes ambivalence between andwithin stakeholder groups. Whereas district and high school principals(84% SA+A), district DEA personnel (80%), parents (67.4%), district highteachers (59.7%) and primary principals (58.6%) tend to favour crosslevel involvement, secondary teachers (32%), central DEA personnel(43.8), primary teachers (48.1) do not. This result remains unexplained unexplainedAdjectivestrange or unclear because the reason for it is not knownAdj. 1. unexplained - not explained; "accomplished by some unexplained process" .On the other hand, the localisation (programming) localisation - (l10n) Adapting a product to meet the language, cultural and other requirements of a specific target market "locale".Localisation includes the translation of the user interface, on-line help and documentation, and ensuring the images and of leader selection is unsupportedby all groups. In sum, Table 8 suggests that although all stakeholders arerelatively clear about what they want leaders to be held accountablefor, the yet-to-be- articulated ar��tic��u��la��tedadj.Characterized by or having articulations; jointed. leadership accountability processes willprobably need to have reliable instrumentation instrumentation,in music: see orchestra and orchestration. instrumentationIn technology, the development and use of precise measuring, analysis, and control equipment. , triangulated data thatare handled sensitively, high responsiveness to classroom, schoolcommunity and systemic perspectives, and explicit links A pointer or link that includes the exact location of the target element. For example, an explicit HREF hypertext link on an HTML page to a graphic would begin with http:// and contain the complete hierarchy of domain name and directories down to and including the graphic file. to leader andinstitutional development. This summation summationn. the final argument of an attorney at the close of a trial in which he/she attempts to convince the judge and/or jury of the virtues of the client's case. (See: closing argument) is supported by the datapresented in Table 9. The impression created by Table 8, specifically that allstakeholders are relatively clear and in agreement about the purposes ofholding leaders accountable while being far less sure about appropriateprocesses, is borne out by Table 9, which also confirms that ambivalencebegins to arise when criteria are drawn from external research, the DEA,or the community. The general legitimacy of leadership accountabilitycriteria falls when associated with recommendations from school reviews,the physical environment, leaders' qualifications or nationalmanagerial competencies. Discussion When the 53 proposals supported by all stakeholder groups in Tables4 to 9 were supplemented by the 27 items that attracted support withonly minor levels of ambivalence in only one or two other groups, the 80proposals were regarded as a touchstone for site and system policyreviews by all stakeholder groups. The 80 items were also reclassifiedinto clusters of performance indicators to identify six areas ofcompetence required of leaders and governors who might wish to provideeducative accountability processes and criteria (Macpherson &Taplin, 1995). The findings in Tables 4 to 9 are now discussed in termsof the same six themes. First, parents, like all stakeholders, want accountabilityprocesses and criteria that help with the clarification of purposes ineach school community, provide a bridge between the evaluation oflearning, teaching and leadership and planning for improvement, andsimultaneously ensure that each school develops its capacities as alearning organisation. Such an approach is inconsistent Reciprocally contradictory or repugnant.Things are said to be inconsistent when they are contrary to each other to the extent that one implies the negation of the other. with any of thefollowing organisational assumptions; a neo-centralist prescription ofwhat schools are for, a unitary unitarypertaining to a single object or individual. concept of `system', a uniformconcept of either 'school' or `implementation of systemicpolicies', or, finally, accounting for the performances of schools,teachers or learners in comparative terms. Instead, the respondents tothe APQ shared an accountability theory that emphasised a philosophicalcommitment to communitarian and problem-solving purposes, a democraticaccommodation of pluralism pluralism,in philosophy, theory that considers the universe explicable in terms of many principles or composed of many ultimate substances. It describes no particular system and may be embodied in such opposed philosophical concepts as materialism and idealism. and supportive interdependence in��ter��de��pen��dent?adj.Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests". A second theme in Tables 4 to 9 is the strategic role to be playedby accountability processes and criteria. There is regular evidence thatall stakeholders value accountability for its provision of collaborativestrategic analyses of the situation in which school communities findthemselves, the opportunity it gives participants to negotiateappropriate indicators of performance, and the imperatives it createsfor classroom, professional and school development programs. This themesuggests that the current emphasis on the more technical aspects ofself-managing teaching and finance, along with systemic attempts tostandardise Verb 1. standardise - evaluate by comparing with a standardstandardizeappraise, assess, evaluate, valuate, value, measure - evaluate or estimate the nature, quality, ability, extent, or significance of; "I will have the family jewels appraised by a curriculum and assessment, fails to do justice to the desireamong all stakeholders to participate in strategic analysis anddirection setting:. There is an expressed need for a holistic HolisticA practice of medicine that focuses on the whole patient, and addresses the social, emotional, and spiritual needs of a patient as well as their physical treatment.Mentioned in: Aromatherapy, Stress Reduction, Traditional Chinese Medicine andinclusionary approach to accountability that integrates philosophicaland planning activities. The third distinct theme is the demand for a responsible andco-operative form of accountability politics. There are regularindications in the data that parents resent re��sent?tr.v. re��sent��ed, re��sent��ing, re��sentsTo feel indignantly aggrieved at.[French ressentir, to be angry, from Old French resentir, exclusionary forms ofprofessionalism, that teachers are troubled by impersonal im��per��son��al?adj.1. Lacking personality; not being a person: an impersonal force.2. a. Showing no emotion or personality: an aloof, impersonal manner. administrationand that administrators are discomforted at being marginalised fromeducational policy processes. Hierarchy and social distance, and the useof arbitrary Irrational; capricious.The term arbitrary describes a course of action or a decision that is not based on reason or judgment but on personal will or discretion without regard to rules or standards. , coercive co��er��cive?adj.Characterized by or inclined to coercion.co��ercive��ly adv. or manipulative ma��nip��u��la��tive?adj.Serving, tending, or having the power to manipulate.n.Any of various objects designed to be moved or arranged by hand as a means of developing motor skills or understanding abstractions, especially in power in education are anathema anathema(ənă`thĭmə)[Gr.,=something set up; dedicated to a divinity as a votive offering], term that came to denote something devoted to a divinity for destruction. In the Bible, the term is herem. .Similarly, it is believed that positional authority should be used todevelop the moral economy of organisational micropolitics, not accrue To increase; to augment; to come to by way of increase; to be added as an increase, profit, or damage. Acquired; falling due; made or executed; matured; occurred; received; vested; was created; was incurred. influence They believe that trust and support should preface pref��ace?n.1. a. A preliminary statement or essay introducing a book that explains its scope, intention, or background and is usually written by the author.b. An introductory section, as of a speech.2. regulationand sanctions Sanctions is the plural of sanction. Depending on context, a sanction can be either a punishment or a permission. The word is a contronym.Sanctions involving countries: . Power relationships between stakeholders should be castin a context of plural PLURAL. A term used in grammar, which signifies more than one. 2. Sometimes, however, it may be so expressed that it means only one, as, if a man were to devise to another all he was worth, if he, the testator, died without children, and he died leaving one legitimate stakeholders, active citizenship Active citizenship generally refers to a philosophy espoused by some organizations and educational institutions. It often states that members of companies or nation-states have certain roles and responsibilities to society and the environment, although those members may not have andeducational partnerships. The generally expressed preference forresponsive and responsible accounting between stakeholders with mutualobligations runs counter to the contractual and technical forms ofaccountability promoted by the political, market and managerialmechanisms more typical of corporate self-management, LMS and SBM. A fourth theme is the importance of accountability with regard tothe development of supportive classroom and staffroom staffroomn → sala de profesoresstaffroomn → salle f des professeursstaffroomstaff n (Scol) → environments.Strongly supported references to positive attitudes in staff andstudents, quality communications, caring behaviours, open andparticipative decision processes, and development programs in governance Governance makes decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists either of a separate process or of a specific part of management or leadership processes. Sometimes people set up a government to administer these processes and systems. and management indicated that accountability was held to be central tothe development and improvement of educational cultures. These group,institutional and systemic cultures were clearly assumed to beinteractive and complementary, rather than independent and competitive,and embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in fiduciary fiduciary(fĭd`shēĕ'rē), in law, a person who is obliged to discharge faithfully a responsibility of trust toward another. rather than in market or power networks.Education is principally defined as a cultural activity in classrooms orwork groups. Most organisational concepts evident in the itemsidentified relationships in the classroom as the basic educationalstructure, with classroom relationships intermittently in��ter��mit��tent?adj.1. Stopping and starting at intervals. See Synonyms at periodic.2. Alternately containing and empty of water: an intermittent lake. linked as`school' or socially embedded in `school community', while`the system' was used even less frequently as a collective noun collective nouna word used to indicate a group of things, e.g. animals as in gaggle of geese, pod of whales. See Table 20. for`schools'. Fifth is the theme of managerial effectiveness and efficiency. Theevidence above is that although all stakeholders expect position holdersto discharge their management duties, they define these duties using acomplex range of technical, professional and school communityperspectives. Management duties were defined in three realms thatoutstrip out��strip?tr.v. out��stripped, out��strip��ping, out��strips1. To leave behind; outrun.2. To exceed or surpass: "Material development outstripped human development"the limits of economic rationalism Economic rationalism is an Australian term in discussion of microeconomic policy, applicable to the economic policy of many governments around the world, in particular during the 1980s and 1990s. . The first realm of dutyimplies accounting for the acquisition, management and development ofresources. Examples might include collaborative program budgeting andhuman resource development. The second set of duties mean accounting forthe quality of support structures and processes in schooling, such asquality teams and co-operative program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. . The third form ofduty means accounting for the quality of the processes used to make andimplement policies, such as the quality of governance, action researchand information and decision systems. Accountability by these lightsdefines effective and efficient management in both immediate educationaland broader communitarian terms in a context of multi-level democraticstructures. The sixth theme is the assumption by all stakeholders thataccountability practices are to serve both summative Adj. 1. summative - of or relating to a summation or produced by summationsummationaladditive - characterized or produced by addition; "an additive process" and formativeevaluation purposes. Summative demand was seen in strongly supportedproposals for the monitoring of outcomes and attitudes, the measurementof students' progress, self-esteem self-esteemSense of personal worth and ability that is fundamental to an individual's identity. Family relationships during childhood are believed to play a crucial role in its development. and life skills, and thesurveying of school climate and stakeholders' policy preferences.Formative formative/for��ma��tive/ (for��mah-tiv) concerned in the origination and development of an organism, part, or tissue. demand was evident in proposals concerned with the provisionof feedback and appraisal systems linked into classroom and schooldevelopment programs. Although there was less surety An individual who undertakes an obligation to pay a sum of money or to perform some duty or promise for another in the event that person fails to act. suretyn. over the mostappropriate teaching and leadership accountability processes, ascompared with those related to accounting for learning, the support foraccountability criteria across all three activities was even and high.This suggests that the quality of learning, teaching and leadershiprequires different accountability policy debates to determine bestprocesses; the principles underpinning un��der��pin��ning?n.1. Material or masonry used to support a structure, such as a wall.2. A support or foundation. Often used in the plural.3. Informal The human legs. Often used in the plural. preferred evaluative criteria areavailable and relatively coherent. Tentative tentative,adj not final or definite, such as an experimental or clinical finding that has not been validated. conclusions The research reported here must be interpreted with caution. Thedata are derived from a broader study and must be regarded asprovisional Temporary; not permanent. Tentative, contingent, preliminary.A provisional civil service appointment is a temporary position that fills a vacancy until a test can be properly administered and statutory requirements can be fulfilled to make a permanent appointment. , normative nor��ma��tive?adj.Of, relating to, or prescribing a norm or standard: normative grammar.nor and idealistic i��de��al��is��tic?adj.Of, relating to, or having the nature of an idealist or idealism.ide��al��is . The statistical analysis islimited to descriptive procedures and actual practices are yet to bemapped with precision. On the other hand, the categories of policypreferences are well grounded, stakeholder sensitive and validated val��i��date?tr.v. val��i��dat��ed, val��i��dat��ing, val��i��dates1. To declare or make legally valid.2. To mark with an indication of official sanction.3. by aniterative and co-operative policy process in a bounded state educationsystem. Given these conditions, the following tentative conclusionsappear to be warranted. There is surprisingly little support in the Australian home of theself-managing school for contractual accountability to employers,parents or designated corporate managers. Parents, teachers, principalsand government education officials at district and state level alsoshare a view that moral accountability to clients and professionalaccountability to peers should be set aside in favour of responsive andmutual accountability between stakeholders. The 12 principles identifiedby ACCSO and APC are strongly supported although this research suggestseven more specific operational principles and organisationalpreferences. With regard to accounting for learning, the processes and criteriafavoured by all stakeholders (a) focus on improving relationships andcollaborative action research in classrooms, while (b) affirming thelegitimacy and value of national and state profiles and performanceindicators, research findings and teacher moderation. Accounting forteaching is held by all stakeholders to be (a) a school levelresponsibility with a broad consensus over processes and criteria, with(b) parents intimating some disquiet over exclusionary professionalismand how reliance on professional development is displacing classroomdevelopment in a school community context. Stakeholders are relativelyclear and in agreement about (a) the purposes of holding leadersaccountable, while (b) being far less sure about appropriate processes.Again, parents are concerned about the reliability of intra-professionalprocesses. With regard to organisational preferences, this educativeaccountability touchstone provides little support for (a) aneo-centralist and unitary concept of `system', (b) planning,co-ordination and policy implementation by corporate managers, (c)comparative assessment of learning, teaching of leadership, (d)partitioned par��ti��tion?n.1. a. The act or process of dividing something into parts.b. The state of being so divided.2. a. curriculum and standardised resource management, (e)communications within and between stakeholders being mediated me��di��ate?v. me��di��at��ed, me��di��at��ing, me��di��atesv.tr.1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: bypositional authority, or (f) incentives based on political or marketdevices. Conversely con��verse?1?intr.v. con��versed, con��vers��ing, con��vers��es1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak.2. there is strong support among all stakeholders for(a) a liberal, communitarian, pragmatic and pluralist plu��ral��ist?n.1. An adherent of social or philosophical pluralism.2. Ecclesiastical A person who holds two or more offices, especially two or more benefices, at the same time.Noun 1. philosophy ofadministration, (b) an inclusionary, simultaneous, and holistic approach holistic approachA term used in alternative health for a philosophical approach to health care, in which the entire Pt is evaluated and treated. See Alternative medicine, Holistic medicine. to policy making, planning and implementation, (c) a trustful,supportive and group-based approach to change management, (d) classroomrelationships seen as primary educational structure, and (e)improvement, accountability and legitimation seen as school communityprojects. Until more targeted research can map actual practices, it might bewise to assume that subsidiarity, pluriformity and complementarity aremore strongly favoured by immediate stakeholders than neo-centralistcorporate management, structural uniformity or performance comparabilityin self-managed schools. The empirical findings presented herecontradict current practices and run counter to structural andtheoretical orthodoxy or��tho��dox��y?n. pl. or��tho��dox��ies1. The quality or state of being orthodox.2. Orthodox practice, custom, or belief.3. Orthodoxya. . They also suggest that many currentorganisational policies, and their sponsors, proceed at considerablerisk. 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Hobart Hobart, city, AustraliaHobart,city (1990 pop. 127,134), capital and principal port of Tasmania, SE Australia, at the foot of Mt. Wellington (4,166 ft/1,270 m high). Hobart's harbor is one of the finest in the world. :Author. Vann, B. (1995). The accountability and assessment of schools inEngland The schools in England are organised into nine lists, one for each region of England. List of schools in the East of England List of schools in the East Midlands List of schools in London List of schools in the North East of England and Wales Wales,Welsh Cymru, western peninsula and political division (principality) of Great Britain (1991 pop. 2,798,200), 8,016 sq mi (20,761 sq km), west of England; politically united with England since 1536. The capital is Cardiff. : Current issues for practitioners. Leading andManaging, 1(3), 180-192. Wohlstetter, P., & Odden, A. (1992). Rethinking school-basedmanagement policy and research. Educational Administration Quarterly,28(4), 529-549. Wohlstetter, P., Wenning, R. & Briggs, K.L. (1995). Charterschools in the United States: The question of autonomy. EducationalPolicy, 9(4), 331-358. Professor Reynold Reynold is an English masculine name derived from an Old High German personal name made up of the elements "ragin" (advice, decision) and "wald" (ruler). It is a cognate of R?gnvaldr. Macpherson is Director of the Centre forProfessional Development at the University of Auckland Not to be confused with Auckland University of Technology.The University of Auckland (Māori: Te Whare Wānanga o Tāmaki Makaurau) is New Zealand's largest university. , Private Bag92019, Auckland Auckland(ôk`lənd), city (1996 pop. 345,768; urban agglomeration pop. 991,796), N North Island, New Zealand. It is situated on an isthmus and is the largest urban region and chief port of the country. , New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. . R.J.S. Macpherson University of Auckland