Conflict in independent Catholic schools.

Conflict in independent Catholic schools. Independent Catholic schools are a growing phenomenon in theCatholic Church in America. This article provides a contextualizedaccount of the phenomenon by examining via a field observation theexperience of two independent Catholic schools in two differentdioceses. These schools were founded in conflict and beset by continuedconflict to the point of splitting; first from the diocese, then againwithin themselves. An environment of religious conflict motivated laityto open their own schools to socialize so��cial��ize?v. so��cial��ized, so��cial��iz��ing, so��cial��iz��esv.tr.1. To place under government or group ownership or control.2. To make fit for companionship with others; make sociable. their children into a traditionalnotion of the Catholic faith. In both independent schools examined,conflict about governance, between founding parents and new stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. who joined the schools, led to each of the schools splitting; thus, thetwo became four. Each of the new breakaway schools was structured andgoverned much like the original schools, albeit with some increasedopenness to parental input. Second generation breakaway splits furthercomplicated the relationship between these schools and their dioceses.While the limited sample prohibits highly generalizable gen��er��al��ize?v. gen��er��al��ized, gen��er��al��iz��ing, gen��er��al��iz��esv.tr.1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law.b. To render indefinite or unspecific.2. data, theaccount suggests some preliminary conclusions about trends witnessed inthe experience of these schools and suggests lines for further inquiryin this relatively unexamined phenomenon. VALUE OF THE EXPOSE There is value in understanding the social dynamics Social dynamics is the study of the ability of a society to react to inner and outer changes and deal with its regulation mechanisms. Social dynamics is a mathematically inspired approach to analyse societies, building upon systems theory and sociology. involved in thecreation and sustenance SustenanceAmalthaeagoat who provided milk for baby Zeus. [Gk. Myth.: Leach, 41]ambrosiafood of the gods; bestowed immortal youthfulness. [Gk. Myth. of independent Catholic schools. Such schoolsare relatively new endeavors that operate at the fringes of thetraditional Catholic educational establishment. The National Associationof Private Catholic and Independent Schools (NAPCIS NAPCIS National Association of Private, Catholic and Independent Schools ), an agency whosepurpose is to network and accredit To give official authorization or status. To recognize as having sufficient academic standards to qualify graduates for higher education or for professional practice. In International Law: these schools, estimates that theremay be as many as 170 independent schools in existence. Most of them aresmall, with fewer than 100 students, and are governed by lay boards.There are some 60 schools formally affiliated with NAPCIS. Of these 60,NAPCIS officials report that many have undergone a serious powerstruggle over governance and that 12 NAPCIS schools have either split orare the result of a split. The authors were interested in the phenomenonof the creation of the schools, and then why they seem to experiencegovernance crises so frequently. The investigation of the schoolspresented here is a preliminary attempt to determine if there might bepatterns in independent Catholic schools that may offer clues toexplaining the nature and effect of the multiple conflicts that appearto confront them. NATURE OF THE INQUIRY Background information was acquired through several years ofexperiential and anecdotal data gathered by the lead researcher, who hadinvolvement with independent Catholic schools as an educationalconsultant and as a board member of the National Association of PrivateCatholic and Independent Schools. Attendance at relevant conferences,meetings with founders of independent Catholic schools, and theexperience of operating several independent Catholic schools helpedgenerate a broad and detailed knowledge base of the phenomenon. To beginspecific lines of inquiry into independent schools, the authors soughtto observe, over time, four specific schools in an attempt to understandhow the participants made sense of their experiences and arranged theorganizations they created. The names and other identifying data of the schools in this articlehave been changed. The first school set is St. Ignatius with itsspin-off, St. Patrick. Their split occurred more than a decade ago. Thewounds of the split were somewhat scabbed scab?n.1. A crust discharged from and covering a healing wound.2. Scabies or mange in domestic animals or livestock, especially sheep.3. a. over and each school issomewhat stable at the present time. The second set of schools examinedin this article is St. John with its spin-off, Holy Redeemer. This splitwas only a year old at the time of inquiry. The pain and instabilityassociated with the split was pronounced and volatile. Multiple sitevisits, informal interviews, a survey of documents, and formalinterviews with founders, board members, teachers, parents, and thesuperintendents of the two dioceses in which the four schools exist,helped generate a complex and detailed account of the experiences of theschools. Rich description and thick case studies of these two/fourorganizations have surfaced some preliminary trends which may serve tohelp in organizing further inquiry into the phenomenon. The authors haveattempted to make sense of these accounts by situating thesedescriptions within a conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see .A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. and then suggesting variousorganizational and political theories in a preliminary attempt to try toaccount for the similar experiences these schools seemed to encounter. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK INFORMING THE ACCOUNT The conceptual framework informing the exposE is based on the workof Thompson (1967) and Parsons (1960), who posited that organizationsoperate at three distinct levels of responsibility and control; the corelevel, the managerial level, and the institutional level. The core levelis where the production functions of the organization occur and inputsare changed into outputs. This is the level of the students and thecurriculum. The managerial level refers to the part of the organizationthat designs and controls the systems of production and directs andgathers resources, both human and physical, to produce the desiredoutput. This is the level of the mid-level school administrators. Andfinally, at the institutional level, the school's managers attemptto relate to the broader environment, establish boundaries, and securethe legitimacy of the organization. This is the level of the presidentand the governing board Noun 1. governing board - a board that manages the affairs of an institutionboard - a committee having supervisory powers; "the board has seven members" . This tripartite TRIPARTITE. Consisting of three parts, as a deed tripartite, between A of the first part, B of the second part, and C of the third part. framework, in conjunction withpolitical theory and organizational theory, helps explicate theexperiences of St. Ignatius/St. Patrick and St. John/Holy Redeemer. WHAT CAUSED THE TWO ORIGINAL INDEPENDENT CATHOLIC SCHOOLS TO FORM? Institutional level analysis can help flesh out the answer. Theinstitutional level of organizational experience is where issues oflegitimacy, rules, and vocabularies of structure come into play. BothSt. Ignatius/St. Patrick and St. John/Holy Redeemer were founded bymembers of the Catholic laity who were concerned about fundamentalissues of what it means to be a "faithful Catholic" and whatintellectual, cultural, and theological elements should be emphasized ina Catholic school. The founders stated that they perceived their localdiocesan or religious order-run Catholic schools as too closelyresembling their public school counterparts in academic program,pedagogy, and acceptance of prevailing cultural norms. The founders alsobelieved the mainstream Catholic schools had theology programs whichwere weak in their presentation of Catholic doctrine. There was also anexplicit desire on behalf of the founders of both St. Ignatius/St.Patrick and St. John/Holy Redeemer to escape the sex education programsmandated by the Catholic diocesan officials, even though thesuperintendents each stated that they felt such programs were in accordwith, and faithful to, Catholic doctrine. Both superintendents statedthat they believed that while there was, perhaps, some weakness inCatholic catechesis cat��e��che��sis?n. pl. cat��e��che��sesOral instruction given to catechumens.[Late Latin cat in the past, current catechesis and training inCatholic human sexuality This article is about human sexual perceptions. For information about sexual activities and practices, see Human sexual behavior. Generally speaking, human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. was indeed fully faithful and appropriate. Theoperators of the independent schools in this article were not inagreement with this assessment, stating that their goal was to fosterand protect what they believed was authentic or faithful Catholiceducation. They seemed motivated by a reactionary hope that, eventually,the institutional Church educational system would return to itshistorical roots of serving as a means to socialize children into astrong, ethnic, and decidedly Catholic culture. The shifting focus and nature of Catholic schools, which is part ofthe genesis of the conflict between the founders of the independentschools and their local diocesan education offices, is discussed in animportant article by Baker and Riordan (1998), entitled "The'Eliting' of the Common American Catholic School and theNational Educational Crisis." They discuss how Catholic schools inAmerica were originally founded to protect the religious and ethnicheritage of immigrant Catholics, who did not feel safe in the heavilyProtestantized public school system. Over time, as Catholics entered themainstream of American culture, and public schools became moresecularized, the logic inspiring the tremendous sacrifices necessary forchildren to attend Catholic schools began to diminish in the eyes ofsome. Social changes, combined with the promulgation PROMULGATION. The order given to cause a law to be executed, and to make it public it differs from publication. (q.v.) 1 Bl. Com. 45; Stat. 6 H. VI., c. 4. 2. of the documents ofVatican II Noun 1. Vatican II - the Vatican Council in 1962-1965 that abandoned the universal Latin liturgy and acknowledged ecumenism and made other reformsSecond Vatican CouncilVatican Council - each of two councils of the Roman Catholic Church , introduced a period of shifting paradigms and conceptionsamong many Catholics, especially related to Catholic schools. Since the late 1960s, enrollment has declined by 57% in Catholicelementary schools and 44% at the secondary level (Baker & Riordan,1998). The post-Vatican II decline in the number of Catholic schools hasonly recently leveled off. Those schools that were able to stay open inthe face of the increasing expenses resulting from lower parishsubsidies and fewer priests and nuns working in the schools and fewerCatholics choosing the schools for financial and ideological reasons,often found it necessary to shift part of their focus to offering a moresecure and academically challenging educational environment to Catholicsand non-Catholics alike, rather than stressing religious orthodoxytailored almost exclusively to Catholic parishioners. It was a direct response to the "eliting" process and anattempt to put Catholic religious formation at the heart of theschools' lived mission that motivated the founders of St.Ignatius/St. Patrick and St. John/Holy Redeemer. The Holy Redeemerprincipal remarked, Many parents today want their kids in Catholic schools, but are not Catholic themselves, and don't want their kids to make a transformation into the faith. We want our students to learn about the faith and to take it on as an identity. As a result of conflict with institutional level officials abouttheology, lay operators sought to open their own independent schoolswhere they could instill in��stillv.To pour in drop by drop.instil��lation n. a theological outlook more in line with theirviews. The battle over theology, however, then became an institutionallevel battle over the rules and structures governing Catholic schools.The battle occurring at the institutional level was actually twofold: aprimary battle over Catholic theology that was then transferred andredirected by diocesan officials into an institutional level conflictfocusing institutional regulations. The result of these conflicts was a complex relationship betweeneach school and the local bishops and superintendents. In each caseexamined, the school sought to curry favor to seek to gain favor by flattery or attentions. See Favor,n. os>to seek to gain favor by flattery, caresses, kindness, or officious civilities.See also: Curry favor with the local bishop andavoid interaction with the bishop's appointed superintendents. Ineach of the two dioceses reflected in the cases, there also appeared tobe some dissonance between the positions struck by the bishops and thesuperintendents toward such schools. The founder of St. Ignatius claimedthat the bishop in charge at the outset told the founder to go aheadwith the idea for the school, and to keep him personally informed, butnot to work through the diocesan superintendent, who was not supportiveof the endeavor. This bishop gave permission for St. Ignatius to becalled "Catholic" and he, and his eventual successor, visitedthe school several times, but the superintendent, and the eventualsuccessor, never visited. St. Patrick, the breakaway school that splitoff from St. Ignatius, was also visited by the bishop, but not thesuperintendent. Although St. Patrick has a virtually identical mission, curriculum,and structure to St. Ignatius, and the new bishop has appointed a priestto minister there, the school has not received status as an officialCatholic school from the new bishop. The new bishop and superintendentin the diocese have struck a more nuanced tone. The new bishop will sayMass at the independent schools, but maintains a distinction betweenthese schools and the diocesan schools. Mass is offered as a generalpastoral outreach to all in his flock. The current superintendent is nothostile to the concept of independent Catholic schools in the diocese,but has some reservations and hopes that both sides will "try towalk and talk gently in each other's direction." He wouldwelcome some sort of direct affiliation with the schools, but would needto be confident in their stability, enrollment, basic curriculum, andsense that they are willing to be "a part of the family" andwork with the other schools. He is open to developing guidelines to workwith them. Similar ambiguities surround St. John/Holy Redeemer. The bishop hasvisited St. John, but the superintendent has not. In this particulardiocese, there are four independent Catholic schools operating; one isofficially recognized as Catholic, although operating outside directdiocesan control, and three others are not officially recognized asCatholic, including St. John/Holy Redeemer. The bishop and chancellorhave openly stated their encouragement of Catholic education in whateverform it may take, including independent Catholic schools. Thesuperintendent is more hesitant in working with such schools and insiststhat, "If these schools want a part of the system they would needto essentially follow the diocesan school manual." Thesuperintendent stated that, A lack of communication and a lack of apparent interest in seeking to work with the superintendents is a problem. It seems frequently they do not make overtures or attempts to come to talk with us. In talking to some of my superintendent counterparts their take seems to be similar. Neither diocese reflected in this article has a specific policy fordealing with this new type of school. The ambiguous status of theseschools, their instability, and their function as a lightning rod lightning rod,a rod made of materials, especially metals, that are good conductors of electricity, which is mounted on top of a building or other structure and attached to the ground by a cable. fortheological conflict seems to have raised questions and concerns thathave not yet been resolved. This nebulous state of events caused a degree of soul searchingamong the independent schools as well. Indeed, the very use of the term"independent Catholic school" is problematic, because itinvites the question, "independent of what?" Independence fromthe Church was not the intent of any of the founders contacted.Actually, they stated that the explicit reason for founding the schoolswas to socialize children into that very entity, the Catholic Church.The operators of the schools reviewed in this article wanted to beindependent from many of the institutional level bureaucratic bu��reau��crat?n.1. An official of a bureaucracy.2. An official who is rigidly devoted to the details of administrative procedure.bu norms andpolitics extant ex��tant?adj.1. Still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct: extant manuscripts.2. Archaic Standing out; projecting. in many parishes, dioceses, and religious orders. Oneindependent school leader described it as not being free from, butrather free to establish the curriculum, free to hire teachers, and freeto determine the school program. This fine line and area of ambiguityseemed to be a sincere concern of the four schools contacted in thisinquiry. However, the abstract nature of the questions faced by the fourindependent schools was not nearly as problematic as the real worldproblem of attempting to operate outside of the established norms,without a support structure, without institutional financing, andwithout the institutional legitimacy that the diocese provides itsmember schools. The operators each reported that trying to run a schoolwas much more difficult than they ever imagined. The complexity andhazards of their environments created unforeseen challenges andquestions about how each of them should organize, persist, and governtheir schools. HOW DID THE ORIGINAL INDEPENDENT CATHOLIC SCHOOLS ORGANIZE? Institutional level analysis helped articulate why the two originalschools formed. Core level analysis will help to convey how the twoschools organized by gathering their founders, establishing theirmissions, and creating their core curriculums. The original schools inthis study, St. Ignatius and St. John, both began by gathering afounding group of likeminded people. For St. Ignatius this was a groupof three families who had previously worked together on pro-life causes,anti-outcomes based education initiatives, and efforts to get sexeducation out of Catholic schools. At St. John, the founding group was asingle family consisting of an older patriarch patriarch, in the Biblepatriarch(pā`trēärk), in biblical tradition, one of the antediluvian progenitors of the race as given in Genesis (e.g., Seth) or one of the ancestors of the Jews (e.g. and his adult children.In each case, the founders were entirely unified in mind and heart, andsought to ensure that unity by maintaining unilateral control of allaspects of the school. They sealed off managerial-level power. Founders of St. Ignatius and St. John also attempted to seal offthe core by articulating a clear mission statement. The missionstatements of the four schools informing this article were remarkablysimilar. St. Patrick, listed here, could suffice for all of them: The mission of St. Patrick grammar and prep as a private school loyal to the Magisterium of the Catholic Church, consecrated to Mary, and committed to proclaiming the sanctity of all human life, is to serve, supplement and support families in their primary mission of educating their children. In cooperation with parents, St. Patrick prepares young people for college and life by forming them in Catholic truth, virtue, and fellowship while inspiring them to seek intellectual, spiritual, aesthetic and physical excellence. The values, tasks, assumptions, and norms that inform the cores ofthe two original schools were also remarkably similar and are almostinterchangeable. The core academics at each suggest a back-to-basicspreference emphasizing such elements as phonics phonicsMethod of reading instruction that breaks language down into its simplest components. Children learn the sounds of individual letters first, then the sounds of letters in combination and in simple words. instruction, significantmemorization mem��o��rize?tr.v. mem��o��rized, mem��o��riz��ing, mem��o��riz��es1. To commit to memory; learn by heart.2. Computer Science To store in memory: , and works of the Western canon. Each also evidenced a deepsuspicion of multiculturalism due to its perceived relativism relativismAny view that maintains that the truth or falsity of statements of a certain class depends on the person making the statement or upon his circumstances or society. Historically the most prevalent form of relativism has been See also ethical relativism. . The St.Ignatius curriculum is based on the assumption that a hierarchy ofvalues should be recognized in the choice of subjects and experiences,and that certain subjects have more intrinsic value Intrinsic Value1. The value of a company or an asset based on an underlying perception of the value.2. For call options, this is the difference between the underlying stock's price and the strike price. , and contribute moredirectly than others to the attainment of educational aims of theschool. Their belief is that curriculum should stress formational morethan informational subjects (i.e., religion, English, literatureclassics, mathematics, etc.). The core at both schools is designed toproduce middle class graduates, schooled in the Western canon andsteeped in traditional Catholicism, who can continue on to study at thecollegiate level. HOW DID THE ORIGINAL SCHOOLS PERSIST? The two original independent schools used similar strategies topersist. Critical to their efforts was heavily buffering the core,especially by limiting the number of students. Both schools wanted to belarge enough to be financially stable, but not at the expense ofwatering down the core or altering structures to appeal to a largeraudience. Fewer students meant fewer variables. Another bufferingtechnique used was to carefully screen students and parents and toinsist on full support of the schools' religious and academicmission. Students with serious academic difficulties were discouragedfrom enrollment. School leaders also buffered the core by employingexclusively Catholic workers to manage the core, and requiring that allstaff reflect a Catholic philosophy of life and conduct. Each schoolrequired teachers and administrators to take the "Oath ofFidelity," which the Catholic Church requires of her bishops andpastors to assure doctrinal doc��tri��nal?adj.Characterized by, belonging to, or concerning doctrine.doctri��nal��ly adv.Adj. 1. orthodoxy and strict adherence to Churchteaching. Both schools had a deep concern about modern pedagogy andprofessional teachers or administrators who were trained in educationalspecialties, and tried to keep such influences out. Controlling thenumber and type of students and the values of the faculty were essentialbuffering strategies employed to protect the core at both St. Ignatiusand St. John. Buffering strategies, originally employed to protect the core, alsohad a destabilizing effect on the two schools. Limiting students andattempting to seal off power from other stakeholders greatly threatenedfinancial viability. Each of the schools was engaged in dramaticattempts to stay afloat. None received the 30% subsidy most parishesoffer their own Catholic schools. However, they were in competition withthe parishes for students and wanted to keep tuition low to remainaccessible to large families. The circumstances created tension and aconstant struggle for resources. St. Ignatius was able to compensate for its large and continuingdeficits by selling books and educational services to other orthodoxCatholics, especially through the use of the Internet. This"business arm" generated enough profit to help fund theschool, but even with these outside sources of revenue, money was tight.St. John continued to draw upon the financial recourse of the foundingfamily, but seemingly unending deficits resulted in anxiety, self-doubt,and unilateral budget decisions. HOW AND WHY DO THEY BREAK APART? The conflicts that impelled im��pel?tr.v. im��pelled, im��pel��ling, im��pels1. To urge to action through moral pressure; drive: I was impelled by events to take a stand.2. To drive forward; propel. the two original independent Catholicschools to set up and organize outside of the traditional institutionalnorms were not the only conflicts they faced. A second wave of conflictsalso impacted the two schools and led to a secondary set of breakawayschools. The first break and continued conflicts on the institutionallevel were significantly about theology, as Catholic laity sought toinfluence the Catholic Church. The secondary break found its impetus atthe managerial level as laity battled over the control of each schooland the fundamental question: Whose school is it? It was the question ofwho should serve as the managers of the core that caused the secondarysplits at St. Ignatius and St. John. The principal, who organized theSt. Patrick break from St. Ignatius, identified the governance headachesthat come from leaving the institutional Church: The great weakness in leaving the institutional Church for the schools is ambiguity about the control of the schools. Now, who's in charge when we open up the schools? We say it's the parents' school, and emphasize that the parents are the primary educators of their children, but you can't have all the parents running the school. I mean, I guess you can, but what happens is, some parents want to run the school one way and some will want to run it another. Who's in charge of the parents? Who's over them? That's when we get the breakups. At St. Ignatius and St. John, structural elements Structural elements are used in structural analysis to simplify the structure which is to be analysed.Structural elements can be linear, surfaces or volumes.Linear elements: Rod - axial loads Beam - axial and bending loads and thedistribution of powers set up by the founders created an environmentthat eventually resulted in a split. At St. Ignatius, the split occurredafter 15 years of the original founding board's guidance. At St.John, the split occurred after 13 years of continuous control by thefounding family. The splits were over issues of power, which Morgan(1997) defines as the medium through which conflicts of interest areultimately resolved. Power is the deciding influence of who gets what,as well as when, and how. Morgan identifies key sources of power: formalauthority, control of scarce resources, use of organizational structure,rules, and regulations, control of the decision-making process, controlof knowledge and information, control of boundaries, ability to copewith uncertainty, control of technology, symbolism, and the managementof meaning, structural factors that define the stage of action, and thepower one already has. The founding board at St. Ignatius and thefounding family at St. John held virtually all of the sources of powerand exercised that power unilaterally. In each case, those in controlnever hid the fact that they, alone, would assure the continuity andapplication of the school's specific and unwavering mission. Inreturn for their tremendous sacrifice and dedication over many years,the founders laid claim to the right and responsibility to shepherd allaspects of the school to keep it faithful. In both original schoolcases, failure to effectively engage in productive decision-makingprocesses, such as consensus building, and creating an environment whereall stakeholders had access to the mechanisms of decision making, led toinstitutional instability. In each case, trust in the leadership erodedas the perceived failure of management to listen was interpreted as asign of not caring. At St. Ignatius, the founding board did at one point admit apopular teacher into its ranks in an attempt to provide for some elementof stakeholder stakeholdern. a person having in his/her possession (holding) money or property in which he/she has no interest, right or title, awaiting the outcome of a dispute between two or more claimants to the money or property. input, especially as some perceived the board president(who was also the founding principal) to be irascible i��ras��ci��ble?adj.1. Prone to outbursts of temper; easily angered.2. Characterized by or resulting from anger.[Middle English, from Old French, from Late Latin and difficult toapproach. The teacher, who subsequently founded his own school just downthe road recalls: During the 4 years I was on the board, more and more often I was thinking in a little bit different way than the rest of the board.... I couldn't help being put between the parents and the board. When I saw this, I knew it was a problem. I saw that it was inevitable that [the founding principal] would eventually decide I was not on his side; I was with them, because I was the one who was always approaching him with the dissatisfaction of the parents. Parents were talking to me because I was approachable.... The things that were bothering me were also bothering a lot of others. The teacher resigned from the board mid-year; by the end of theyear he had helped form a breakaway school. About 13 of the 20 familiesat the school decided to leave with the new leader and open St. Patricka few miles away. At St. John, the school parents accepted the family's completecontrol over the school it had founded and substantially bankrolleduntil it was perceived that the family had overly privileged its ownchildren in an expulsion case. Influential family members succeeded inoverruling o��ver��rule?tr.v. o��ver��ruled, o��ver��rul��ing, o��ver��rules1. a. To disallow the action or arguments of, especially by virtue of higher authority: a popular principal regarding the discipline of the foundingfamily's children. The conflict ultimately resulted in the mid-yeardismissal of the principal. A majority of the staff and familiesexperienced this as a serious abuse by the founding family for personalgain. At the end of the year, 8 of 12 faculty members and about half ofthe students and families left en masse en masse?adv.In one group or body; all together: The protesters marched en masse to the capitol.[French : en, in + masse, mass. to form their own school, HolyRedeemer. This particular case is especially problematic, as a privateCatholic organization came to be treated as personal property. In asense this was not so much a "private" Catholic school as a"personal" Catholic school. The damage that a "personal" school can create, as seenin the case of St. John's, is that a Catholic child can experiencehis or her Catholic institution split apart because of the will of anindividual or a particular family. This is understandably problematicfrom the perspective of the superintendents in each of the dioceseswhere these splits occurred. Each superintendent emphasized that it isimportant for the Church as an institution to be perceived by itschildren as stable and beyond discernible political, and certainlybeyond personal, control. In a typical Catholic school, there aremechanisms in place to prevent such abuses. The bishop, a pastor, or thesuperintendent, can step in and resolve the situation according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. basicjustice, due process, and standard expectations of the generalcommunity. The superintendent in the St. John/Holy Redeemer caseremarked: These splits can cause such harm, especially to the children. Children aren't so dumb. They see what's going on. It isn't fair to those children to be put into that kind of environment. Why should they see it growing up in a system that should be safe and secure for them, one that they will identify as being Catholic? This is damage that is done to them under the guise of Catholic education. That's not acceptable to me. When an entity seeks to function as a Catholic institution, thereare certain paradigms that are expected: hierarchy, stability, andinstitutionalization InstitutionalizationThe gradual domination of financial markets by institutional investors, as opposed to individual investors. This process has occurred throughout the industrialized world. . Each of the schools this article examines splitapart over managerial control, not about theology or curriculum. Eachsplit was a result of stakeholders seeking a voice in the education oftheir children. In the original schools, founded and controlled by aparticular group of parents, the ability to vote out the founders or theboard was not an option. According to "dissatisfaction theory," when constituentsin a democracy grow discontented dis��con��tent��ed?adj.Restlessly unhappy; malcontent.discon��tent with the elites, they throw, that isvote, them out. In the realm of public education, changes in elite powerusually manifest via a Turning Point Election Process (TPEP TPEP Trusted Product Evaluation Program (National Computer Security Center)TPEP Transition Program Execution PlanTPEP Temporary Positive Expiratory Pressure (Medical Products Research Srl)). The TPEPprocess involves: (a) the ascension Ascension, in ChristianityAscension,name usually given to the departure of Jesus from earth as related in the Gospels according to Mark (16) and Luke (24) and in Acts 1.1–11. of voter discontent, (b) atriggering election, (c) a realignment re��a��lign?tr.v. re��a��ligned, re��a��lign��ing, re��a��ligns1. To put back into proper order or alignment.2. To make new groupings of or working arrangements between. election, (d) articulation of anew policy mandate, and (e) a final test election (Iannaccone, 1983).This mechanism was not present in the original independent Catholicschools. Without the ability to change the school by democratic vote, thesolution for resolving an intolerable situation, for those not part ofthe power elite, was to leave the original school. Ironically, thefounders of St. Ignatius and St. John had done this very thingthemselves; they left the diocesan system claiming that system deniedthem the ability to create a satisfactory Catholic ethos. Now, thepattern repeated, only now parents split from other parents in anattempt to gain power and access to a school more in line with theirexpectations. The willingness of the original founders of St. Ignatius and St.John to see their schools split rather than to compromise, seems toverify Iannaccone's (1983) observation that once a person or grouppossesses an established power, the individual or group is often soconcerned with protecting the rights and privileges such power brings,and clings to power so blindly, that they risk destroying the veryentity or organization upon which their power is based. Michels (1915)similarly observes: One who holds the office of delegate acquires a moral right to that office, and delegates remain in office unless removed by extraordinary circumstances or in obedience to rules observed with exceptional strictness.... Custom becomes a right. One who has for a certain time held the office of delegate ends by regarding that office as his own property. (p. 81) Michels attributes this idea to the noble human sentiment ofgratitude: "The failure to realize a comrade who assisted in thebirth of the [organization], who suffered its many adversities, andrendered it 1000 services, would be regarded as a cruelty and an actionto be condemned" (p. 124). As the leaders' length of tenure orgrip on power grows, it can, according to Michels, result in a type ofclosed caste caste[Port., casta=basket], ranked groups based on heredity within rigid systems of social stratification, especially those that constitute Hindu India. Some scholars, in fact, deny that true caste systems are found outside India. . The ossification ossification/os��si��fi��ca��tion/ (os?i-fi-ka��shun) formation of or conversion into bone or a bony substance.ectopic ossification of such a system can result in acatastrophic change if the leadership pursues policies that overlystrain social relationships, or if they act in complete blindness. Suchappears to have happened in the original two schools. The experience of St. Ignatius and St. John, and theacknowledgement from NAPCIS officials that a number of other independentCatholic schools have had a considerable amount of difficultyestablishing relations between the founders and those who follow them,suggests that founders like those who began St. Ignatius and St. Johnevidently have the vision and passion to start independent schools but,by general temperament, may have difficulty sharing or transferringpower. The transition from the crisis mode that impels the initialcreation of the schools, into an institutional mode that is necessaryfor long-term survivability sur��viv��a��ble?adj.1. Capable of surviving: survivable organisms in a hostile environment.2. That can be survived: a survivable, but very serious, illness. , may call for different skill sets andpersonality types. After the initial rush, sacrifice, and significantgoodwill efforts in a valiant VALIANTValsartan in Acute Myocardial Infarction Trial Cardiology A series of multinational M&M trials to determine the effects of valsartan–Diovan® cause of championing religious orthodoxy,the grinding and complex difficulty of running a multifaceted school canthreaten the viability of the enterprise; for the enterprise transcendsthe work of simply transmitting religious orthodoxy. One way to conceive of Verb 1. conceive of - form a mental image of something that is not present or that is not the case; "Can you conceive of him as the president?"envisage, ideate, imagine this dynamic is through the metaphor of"pioneers" and "settlers." The pioneers approach theunknown with initial energy, courage, vision, risk-taking propensities,and an uncompromising passion to do something new, and to do it "myway." Once ground has been broken and the trails opened, morepractical-minded settlers move in. With increased numbers and increasedcomplexity comes the need for more structure, bureaucracy,collaboration, and community effort. For some pioneers, suchnecessities, entitlements, and intra-relational complexities areexasperating. In addition, the incredible amount of energy and stressrequired to create a new organization can also wear down the pioneers.Is there something in the very temperament of those inspired to startsuch an enterprise that can work against long-term success? In dealing with the founders, we may have encountered a unique typeof individual, one who, out of the need for control, establishes a newentity, and then is put in a position of passing that entity on. Michels(1915) insightfully comments, The abandonment of a public position obtained at the cost of great efforts, and after many years of struggle, is a luxury which only an exceptionally endowed person, with the spirit of self-sacrifice, can afford. Such self-denial is too hard for the average man. (p. 206) The difficulty in letting go is articulated by a St. Ignatiusfounder, who remarked: We couldn't walk away because our hearts were so much in this school. This was our baby. It seemed as if they want us to step down because we were too old and new blood needed to take over. But we weren't willing to do that. We were afraid the academics would suffer and we didn't know what would happen with the rest of the program as well. I couldn't stand around here and watch the program change in ways that were unacceptable. Impelled by a sense of clear and critical mission, and an ardentdesire to serve the common good, pioneers start a new organization, butare ultimately confronted with inherent difficulties in organizing,difficulties that thrust these founders and visionaries into ironic,problematic, and perhaps even irresolvable ir��re��solv��a��ble?adj.1. Irresoluble.2. Impossible to separate into component parts; irreducible. situations. When the two communities at the focus of this inquiry finally brokeapart, the processes of disintegration also seemed to follow a patternsuggested by organizational theorists. Dyck and Starke (1999) posited atheory of group exit based upon their study of various small Protestantcongregations that split apart. The authors suggested that such breakshappened in stages, beginning with a period of relative harmony wherepotential conflicts exist beneath the surface, until, at some point, aconflicting idea or event occurs and ideas for change begin to develop.Those who want to keep the status quo [Latin, The existing state of things at any given date.] Status quo ante bellum means the state of things before the war. The status quo to be preserved by a preliminary injunction is the last actual, peaceable, uncontested status which preceded the pending controversy. , and who perceive that anorganized element is seeking to change their institution, initiate aperiod of resistance, during which there is more open competition forthe hearts and minds of community members. If the resistance leads tosome extreme polarizing event, where personal feelings, emotions, andegos get actively involved, a period of intense conflict results. If andwhen a final justifying event or fight occurs, or if those who wereseeking change perceive that, ultimately, they will not be heard and arebeing treated as enemies, the subgroup sub��group?n.1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group.2. A subordinate group.3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group.tr.v. enters the final stage, formalgroup exit. In this stage the split occurs as the breakaway groupleaves, often with a sense of euphoria An interpreted programming language developed in 1993 by Robert Craig at Rapid Deployment Software that is noted for its execution speed, flexibility and simplicity. It can simulate any programming method including object-oriented constructs. , while those who remain in theparent group may feel depressed and abandoned. This basic process tookplace in the schools involved in this study. HOW DID THE NEW BREAKAWAY SCHOOLS ORGANIZE? The answer to this question is brief, but nonetheless striking: Thetwo breakaway schools, St. Patrick and Holy Redeemer, organized andoffered the same core as St. Ignatius and St. John, the communities theyleft. A critical mass of dissatisfied parents, about 50% of the total inboth cases, left the schools according to the paradigm suggested by Dyckand Starke (1999). The dissatisfied stakeholders, led in the case ofSt.Ignatius/St. Patrick by a popular teacher, and in St. John/HolyRedeemer by a popular principal, organized their own school offering thesame basic core technology, and the same basic governance style, under"new management." Mosca (1939) predicted such a process of governmental isomorphism isomorphism(ī'səmôr`fĭzəm), of minerals, similarity of crystal structure between two or more distinct substances. Sodium nitrate and calcium sulfate are isomorphous, as are the sulfates of barium, strontium, and lead. when he observed that when new leaders drive out the old or start newcommunities, they can marshal fresh political forces, and sometimes, newleadership seems to arise out of nowhere. However, after a time, theytoo become stabilized ruling elite. Pareto (1935) termed this process"The Circulation of Elites." The control of the masses by theelite is a permanent fixture of organizational reality, according toPareto. Quite quickly, any ruling class tends to become more and moreexclusive and learns how to monopolize mo��nop��o��lize?tr.v. mo��nop��o��lized, mo��nop��o��liz��ing, mo��nop��o��liz��es1. To acquire or maintain a monopoly of.2. To dominate by excluding others: monopolized the conversation. , acquire, and hold power to itsadvantage. Mosca stated, "Then, at last, the force that isessentially conservative appears: the force of habit force of habitn.Behavior that has become automatic through long practice or frequent repetition. " (p. 602). Thenew power is established, and inertia and tradition ossify os��si��fyv.To change into bone.ossify (os´ifī),v to transform from soft tissue to hardened bone.ossifyto change or develop into bone. thestructures. Eventually, however, the new elite at the breakaway school arrangedfor a degree of power sharing in an attempt to secure more resources andenhance institutional legitimacy. The two breakaway schools eventuallytried to structure inclusive mechanisms to some degree. It isparticularly interesting to note that when the new St. Patrick schoolformed, it created a controlling board with no democratic elections.There was a sense that the new management of the school needed to beinsulated enough from democratic influence to maintain its vision.However, even in its infancy, St. Patrick did attempt to allow for agreater parent voice, by holding a strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. session with allfamilies, seeking their input, sending home periodic parent surveyforms, and forming parent advisory groups to aid the board in issues ofpolicy, finance, fundraising, and other key areas. Through its first 8 years, the St. Patrick original founding boardmaintained complete control of all aspects of the school. One founderobserved, "Really, our board and governance structure was not awhole lot different from St. Ignatius's. We had a board structuredmuch like theirs. The difference was we had a headmaster who wouldlisten to people." Essentially, the outcome was a simple switchingof the personalities in control of a basically oligarchical ol��i��gar��chy?n. pl. ol��i��gar��chies1. a. Government by a few, especially by a small faction of persons or families.b. Those making up such a government.2. system. After 8 years of operating in this manner, the St. Patrick boardrecently decided to reorganize re��or��gan��ize?v. re��or��gan��ized, re��or��gan��iz��ing, re��or��gan��iz��esv.tr.To organize again or anew.v.intr.To undergo or effect changes in organization. . As part of an effort to move beyond a"mom-and-pop" type of organization into a moreinstitutionalized in��sti��tu��tion��al��ize?tr.v. in��sti��tu��tion��al��ized, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��ing, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��es1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to.b. format, the original founding board members steppedoff the board and turned over control of the school to a new group thatthey selected. They hoped that this would help attract future donors,families, and others, and to enhance the school's sense oflegitimacy. Referring to his own experience in resigning from the boardand turning over control of the school to others, the St. Patrickfounding principal remarked: I felt that in order for the school to succeed, it's not a question of my personal power.... Personally, for me, this change was hard. It's very difficult because you no longer have the power to do things according to the vision you think you have been given by our Lord and your own common sense. So it's a tough adjustment. But, I think I'm starting to make it. It's been a year and a half and I'm starting to enjoy the freedom it has given me. The most difficult thing was going from being your own boss to having five or six bosses.... At first, it was awkward about how I related to the board and how they related to me, but now things have settled down a bit. He said that the change and governance style has also had benefits: I do think it helps the families get a sense of "this is our school." "I can be on this committee; I can be on that. I can do this; I can do that." I don't think I feel so much like it's just me running this school. I think initially there are people who decided this was my school. But I don't want it to be my school: I want it to be St. Patrick. This process of institutionalization is perhaps a key to reducingthe instability that can plague independent schools and may help tointegrate them into a more sure-footed relationship with the CatholicChurch. There is perhaps some merit in the two diocesan superintendentsinvolved with these schools taking a standoffish stand��off��ish?adj.Aloof or reserved.stand��offish��ness n. approach to them untilinstitutionalization brings a greater measure of stability. Scott (1998)described institutionalization as the process by which "actions arerepeated and given similar meaning by self and others" (p. 134). Itis part of the process by which social reality is constructed. Scottbelieves that "social life is only possible because and to theextent that individuals in interaction create common frameworks andunderstandings that support collective action" (p. 135). To theextent that personal schools, especially as evident in St. John,undermine collective action by using an organization to benefit someindividuals to an unacceptable degree, they cannot successfullyinstitutionalize in��sti��tu��tion��a��lizev.To place a person in the care of an institution, especially one providing care for the disabled or mentally ill.in . Successful institutionalization is aided by amanagement structure that provides for authentic collective action. Oneindicator of that kind of collective action might be the occasion of theschool board leadership being completely transferred to a secondgeneration of leadership that does not include founders, employees,spouses of employees, or school founders. The superintendent of thediocese surrounding St. John/Holy Redeemer remarked: Frankly, I think the original founders have to have a change of heart. They have to be able to say, "time for us to step down and give up the reins." It's not an easy thing. But I think if you have the heart you can do it. If you need to be the controlling factor, then you may not be able to do it. Such authentic institutionalization may help ensure that the schoolfunctions as a private rather than a personal organization. HOW DO THE NEW SCHOOLS PERSIST? When the breakaway schools formed, the core technology did notchange. The books, curriculums, values, norms, traditions, and missionsremained substantially those of the parent school. The two biggestchallenges to the breakaways' persistence were space and finances.The breakaways each sought to use empty Catholic school buildings, butwere denied their use by the diocese. In both cases examined, thesuperintendents were concerned that the general public might assume thatan "independent school" is part of the diocese if it wereusing church property. The superintendents expressed concern that if theschools failed or were the subject of scandal, the diocese could betarnished by an organization outside of its control. In the case of thetwo breakaways in this study, each finally rented space from Protestantchurches This is a list of Protestant churches by denomination. Anglican/Episcopal ChurchAnglican CommunionAnglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia Anglican Diocese of Auckland = Archdeaconry of Waimate= = Parish of Kaitaia . The facilities in each case were older, in need of paintingand basic upkeep. The start-up schools relied on donated or discardeditems to set up basic office and classroom space. Each school also had tremendous difficulty paying the rent on thesefacilities and meeting payroll, especially in the first year. Survivalwas not assured. Dramatic fundraising efforts, volunteer workers, andteachers working part-time with non-existent or reduced benefits andsometimes without promised pay, helped the schools stay afloat inextreme financial duress duress(dy`rĭs, d`–, d . The two breakaway schools were free from direct dependency on anyone family or business, but, subsequently, more dependent on a varietyof families. They exhibited more mild, but still substantial, bufferingstrategies to attract students, and thus tuition. Dependency on tuitionleft school administrators more responsive to their stakeholders, butalso much less financially secure. Being beholden be��hold��en?adj.Owing something, such as gratitude, to another; indebted.[Middle English biholden, past participle of biholden, to observe; see behold. to the parents wascause for some concern, lest the schools be forced to"water-down" their core to attract more resources and be moreresponsive to parents, who may not be fully socialized so��cial��ize?v. so��cial��ized, so��cial��iz��ing, so��cial��iz��esv.tr.1. To place under government or group ownership or control.2. To make fit for companionship with others; make sociable. into the completeorthodox Catholic core mission and vision. Very early into their youngexistence the schools were experiencing the same "eliting"pressures that they believed so dramatically affected mainstreamCatholic schools before them. And so the cycle continues. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS The complex nature of the four schools examined in this article andthe difficulty in running them suggests, even to their own founders,that they are a temporary answer, not a long-term solution. The foundingprincipal of St. Ignatius remarked: The small-school thing is a thumb in the dike until the Church gets back together hierarchically. It's a way-by, a pullout along the highway, until it's safe to pull back in. And the schools, for the most part, are doing a good job.... This type of autocracy won't work on a large scale because there are too many different personalities. There will be those who come on board and want something different than what you've got; your autocracy is going to be challenged by others. What we want is unity under the hierarchy, and that's what we should seek out; not now, but we should prepare for it. Not now, because we can't trust in the people currently in charge. It is ironic that the independent schools examined here tried tooperate outside the Church structure to accomplish their theologicalgoal of supporting the Catholic Church, yet the lack of structure cameback to threaten their viability and ability to accomplish theirtheological goals. The lack of structure also added another barrier thatprevented them from being accepted as fully "Catholic"enterprises in the eyes of Church officials. The four independent schools presented were born in conflict. Theirgenesis occurred when parents saw no other viable option for instilling in��stillalso in��stil ?tr.v. in��stilled, in��still��ing, in��stills also in��stils1. To introduce by gradual, persistent efforts; implant: "Morality . . . their values in their children. Institutional level conflict with Churchleaders led to the founding of these schools. However, subsequentmanagerial level conflict led to the schools splitting apart as parentsbattled the question: Whose school is it? In these schools, conflict ledto action and action led to change. On the level of the individualschools presented, there is a sense of immediate urgency in thesevarious conflicts. Their existence is at stake. However, on theinstitutional level of the Catholic Church, such conflicts may bepressing, but they are not life threatening to the Church. It will taketime for the Catholic Church to process and respond to the conflicts anddynamics. The Church perceives itself as a living organism: It refers toitself as the living body of Christ This article is about the religious concept. For article about the sect, see The Body of Christ.The Body of Christ is a term used by Christians to describe believers in Christ. Jesus Christ is seen as the "head" of the body, which is the church. . It, too, is subject to change.However, the Church is slow. Changes often take generations to occur andbe absorbed into its operating framework and paradigms. Given that this article focused on the experiences of just fourschools in two dioceses, caution is advised regarding limitations on anysuggested conclusions, and particularly, questions about thetransferability of generalizations are warranted. Anecdotal evidence anecdotal evidence,n information obtained from personal accounts, examples, and observations. Usually not considered scientifically valid but may indicate areas for further investigation and research. through conversations and "sharing the stories" suggested tothe authors that the dynamics affecting St. Ignatius/St. Patrick and St.John/Holy Redeemer may be affecting other independent schools as well.However, a further formal study seeking to address the applicability ofconclusions preliminarily suggested here to other independent Catholicschools is advisable. In addition, this article is perhaps the firstaccount of independent Catholic schools presented in a scholarlyjournal. Although this article focused on just four independent schools,there appear to be as many as 170 others in existence that have not beenstudied or analyzed in any systematic way. Lines of inquiry for furtherreflection might include: a formal study of the attitudes of bishops andsuperintendents toward independent Catholic schools; a study of anypolicies that might be in place about the ways dioceses relate toindependent schools; and perhaps a complete demographic accounting ofsuch schools, including size, location, founding, philosophies, andwhere appropriate, details of any split. There is much to be explored asthe independent school movement develops and grows. REFERENCES Baker, D., & Riordan, C. (1998). The "eliting" of thecommon American Catholic school and the national educational crisis. PhiDelta Kappan, 80(1), 16-24. Dyck, B., & Starke, F. (1999). The formation of breakawayorganizations: Observations and a process model. 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New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : McGraw-Hill. Pareto, V. (1935). The mind and society. New York: Harcourt Brace. Parsons, T. (1960). Structure and process in modern societies.Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and opensystems. Upper Saddle River Saddle River may refer to: Saddle River, New Jersey, a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey Saddle River (New Jersey), a tributary of the Passaic River in New Jersey , NJ: Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Prentice Hall publishes print and digital content for the 6-12 and higher education market. HistoryIn 1913, law professor Dr. . Thompson, J. D. (1967). Organizations in action: Social sciencebases of administrative theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. DAN GUERNSEY Ave Maria Ave Maria(ä`vā märē`ä)[Lat.,=hail, Mary], prayer to the Virgin Mary universal among Roman Catholics, also called the Ave, the Hail Mary, and the Angelic Salutation. College JAMES BAROTT Eastern Michigan University Eastern Michigan University,mainly at Ypsilanti, Mich.; coeducational; founded 1849 as a normal school, became Eastern Michigan College in 1956, gained university status in 1959. Dan Guernsey is President of Ave Maria College in Ypsilanti, MI,and a board member of NAPCIS. James Barott is Professor of EducationalLeadership at Eastern Michigan University. Correspondence concerningthis article should be sent to Dr. Dan Guernsey, Ave Maria College, 300W. Forest Ave., Ypsilanti, MI, 48197.